In:Grammar of Spoken and Written English
Douglas Biber, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey N. Leech, Susan Conrad and Edward Finegan
[Not in series 232] 2021
► pp. v–xxviii
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Published online: 29 November 2021
https://doi.org/10.1075/z.232.toc
https://doi.org/10.1075/z.232.toc
Table of contents
Abbreviations and symbolsxxix
Prefacexxxi
Symbols and notational conventionsxxxiii
Section A.Introductory1
Chapter 1.Introduction3
1.1Introduction4
1.1.1Major goals of the GSWE5
1.2Structure and use in English grammar6
1.2.1Register distribution9
1.2.2Lexico-grammatical patterns13
1.2.3Grammatical/discourse factors14
1.3Varieties of English15
1.3.1Registers of English15
1.3.2Dialect distinctions17
1.3.3Standard and non-standard English18
1.3.3.1Variation within standard English18
1.3.3.2Variation within non-standard English20
1.3.4The relative importance of register and dialect differences21
1.4Representation of varieties in the LSWE Corpus25
1.4.1Register distinctions in the LSWE Corpus25
1.4.2Dialect distinctions in the LSWE Corpus26
1.4.3Size of the LSWE Corpus27
1.4.4Representativeness and accuracy of the LSWE Corpus27
1.5Description of the register categories in the LSWE Corpus29
1.5.1Conversation29
1.5.2Fiction30
1.5.3News31
1.5.4Academic prose33
1.5.5Supplementary registers34
1.6Grammatical analysis of the LSWE Corpus35
1.7Quantitative findings in the grammar38
1.8Functional interpretation of quantitative findings41
1.8.1Function as the performance of tasks41
1.8.2Function as a reflection of processing constraints43
1.8.3Function as social or situational indexing43
1.8.4Other explanatory considerations44
1.9Overview of the grammar44
1.10Potential users and uses of the GSWE45
Section B.Basic grammar49
Chapter 2.Word and phrase grammar51
2.1The nature of grammatical units52
2.2Words and their characteristics53
2.2.1Word types and word tokens54
2.2.1.1Use of words in text examples54
2.2.1.2TTR across the registers55
2.2.2Orthographic words, grammatical words, and lexemes56
2.2.3The three major word classes57
2.2.3.1Lexical words57
2.2.3.2Function words57
2.2.3.3Inserts58
2.2.4Closed systems v. open classes58
2.2.5The structure of words: Morphology59
2.2.5.1Inflection59
2.2.5.2Derivation60
2.2.5.3Compounding60
2.2.5.4Multi-word lexical units61
2.2.6Core v. peripheral members of word classes61
2.2.7Multiple class membership62
2.2.8Use of lexical words, function words, and inserts63
2.2.9Lexical density64
2.3Survey of lexical words64
2.3.1Nouns65
2.3.2Lexical verbs65
2.3.3Adjectives66
2.3.4Adverbs66
2.3.5Lexical word classes67
2.3.6Borderline cases of lexical word class membership69
2.4Survey of function words71
2.4.1Determiners72
2.4.2Pronouns72
2.4.2.1Overlap of pronoun, determiner, and adverb classes73
2.4.2.2Other pro-forms74
2.4.3Primary auxiliaries75
2.4.4Modal auxiliaries75
2.4.5Prepositions76
2.4.5.1Free v. bound prepositions76
2.4.5.2Complex prepositions77
2.4.5.3Overlap between prepositions and other word classes78
2.4.6Adverbial particles80
2.4.6.1Adverbial particles v. adverbs80
2.4.6.2Adverbial particles v. prepositions80
2.4.7Coordinators81
2.4.7.1Correlative coordinators82
2.4.7.2Coordinators v. other word classes82
2.4.7.3Simple coordinators: Distribution83
2.4.7.4Sentence/turn-initial coordinators86
2.4.7.5Correlative coordinators: Distribution88
2.4.8Subordinators88
2.4.8.1Complex subordinators88
2.4.8.2Correlative subordinators89
2.4.8.3Overlap between subordinators and other word classes89
2.4.9Wh-words90
2.4.10Existential there91
2.4.11The negator not91
2.4.12The infinitive marker to92
2.4.13Numerals92
2.4.13.1Cardinals92
2.4.13.2Ordinals93
2.4.13.3Numerals: Distribution93
2.4.14Major function word classes: Distribution94
2.5Survey of inserts97
2.6Phrases and their characteristics98
2.6.1Constituency98
2.6.2Form v. syntactic role of phrases99
2.6.3Phrases in text samples99
2.7Types of phrases101
2.7.1Noun phrases101
2.7.1.1The syntactic roles of noun phrases102
2.7.1.2Discontinuous noun phrases104
2.7.2Verb phrases104
2.7.2.1The syntactic role of verb phrases105
2.7.2.2Discontinuous verb phrases105
2.7.2.3Auxiliary-only verb phrases105
2.7.3Adjective phrases106
2.7.3.1The syntactic roles of adjective phrases106
2.7.3.2Discontinuous adjective phrases106
2.7.4Adverb phrases107
2.7.4.1The syntactic roles of adverb phrases107
2.7.5Prepositional phrases108
2.7.5.1Extended prepositional phrases108
2.7.5.2The syntactic roles of prepositional phrases109
2.7.5.3Stranded prepositions109
2.7.5.4Stranded prepositions in independent wh-questions110
2.7.6Genitive phrases113
2.7.7Numeral phrases113
2.7.7.1Complex numbers114
2.7.7.2Types of numerical expressions114
2.7.7.3Approximate numbers116
2.7.7.4Approximating numeral expressions117
2.8Embedding of phrases117
2.9Coordination of phrases118
2.9.1Phrasal v. clausal coordination119
2.9.2Coordination tags120
2.9.2.1Distribution of coordination tags120
2.10Simple v. complex phrases121
Chapter 3.Clause grammar123
3.1Clause v. non-clausal material124
3.1.1Use of clauses v. non-clausal material in text samples124
3.2Major clause elements126
3.2.1Subject (S)127
3.2.1.1Semantic roles of subjects128
3.2.1.2Dummy subjects129
3.2.1.3Subjects in non-finite clauses129
3.2.2Verb phrase (V)130
3.2.3Subject predicative (Ps)130
3.2.4Direct object (Od)130
3.2.4.1Semantic roles of direct objects131
3.2.4.2Dummy objects132
3.2.5Indirect object (Oi)132
3.2.6Prepositional object (Op)133
3.2.7Object predicative (Po)134
3.2.8Adverbials (A)134
3.2.8.1Circumstance adverbials (Ac)135
3.2.8.2Stance adverbials (As)135
3.2.8.3Linking adverbials (Ai)137
3.2.9The operator137
3.3Clause links138
3.4Peripheral elements140
3.4.1Detached predicatives and related forms141
3.4.2Parentheticals141
3.4.3Prefaces142
3.4.4Tags143
3.4.5Discourse markers144
3.4.6Vocatives144
3.5Major clause patterns145
3.5.1Subject – verb phrase145
3.5.2Subject – verb phrase – obligatory adverbial147
3.5.3Subject – verb phrase – subject predicative149
3.5.3.1The characterizing pattern149
3.5.3.2The identifying pattern150
3.5.4Subject – verb phrase – direct object150
3.5.5Subject – verb phrase – prepositional object152
3.5.6Subject – verb phrase – indirect object – direct object154
3.5.7Subject – verb phrase – direct object – prepositional object154
3.5.8Subject – verb phrase – direct object – object predicative154
3.5.9Subject – verb phrase – direct object – obligatory adverbial155
3.5.10More complex patterns156
3.6Variations on clause patterns156
3.6.1Order variations156
3.6.1.1Inversion156
3.6.1.2Fronting156
3.6.1.3Postponement157
3.6.2The passive157
3.6.3Existential there158
3.6.4Extraposition158
3.6.5Clefting158
3.6.6Condensation159
3.7Ellipsis159
3.7.1Ellipsis in coordinated clauses159
3.7.2Ellipsis in comparative clauses160
3.7.3Ellipsis in question-answer sequences160
3.7.4Other types of textual ellipsis160
3.7.5Omission of function words and situational ellipsis161
3.8Negation162
3.8.1Overall frequency of negation162
3.8.2Not-negation163
3.8.2.1The auxiliary do in negative clauses with transitive have (got)163
3.8.2.2The auxiliary do in negative clauses with the semi-modal have to165
3.8.2.3The auxiliary do in negative clauses with dare and need166
3.8.2.4The auxiliary do in negative clauses with ought to and used to167
3.8.2.5Full form v. operator contraction v. not-contraction168
3.8.2.6Aren’t I and ain’t169
3.8.3No-negation170
3.8.4Occurrence of not-negation v. no-negation172
3.8.4.1Variability of not-negation and no-negation172
3.8.4.2Relative frequency of not-negation v. no-negation173
3.8.4.3Choice of no-negation v. not-negation173
3.8.4.4Not-negation collocations176
3.8.5The scope of negation177
3.8.6Assertive and non-assertive forms178
3.8.7Multiple negation180
3.8.7.1Dependent multiple negation180
3.8.7.2Independent multiple negation181
3.9Subject-verb concord182
3.9.1Complications with concord patterns183
3.9.1.1Concord with plural forms not ending in -s183
3.9.1.2Concord with singular forms ending in -s184
3.9.1.3Concord with coordinated subjects184
3.9.1.4Concord with indefinite pronouns and quantifying expressions186
3.9.1.5Concord with existential there187
3.9.1.6Concord with clausal subjects188
3.9.2Notional concord189
3.9.2.1Concord with names, titles, and quotations189
3.9.2.2Concord with measure expressions189
3.9.2.3Concord with collective nouns190
3.9.3Concord and proximity191
3.9.4Non-standard concord in conversation192
3.9.5Subject-verb concord and pronominal reference194
3.10Types of dependent clauses194
3.11Finite dependent clauses195
3.11.1Nominal clauses195
3.11.2Adverbial clauses196
3.11.3Relative clauses197
3.11.4Comparative clauses and other degree clauses197
3.11.5Reporting clauses198
3.11.6Comment clauses198
3.11.7Other peripheral clauses199
3.12Non-finite clauses199
3.12.1Infinitive clauses200
3.12.2Ing-clauses201
3.12.3Ed-clauses202
3.12.4Supplementive clauses202
3.12.5Verbless clauses203
3.13Major types of independent clauses203
3.13.1Declarative clauses204
3.13.2Interrogative clauses205
3.13.2.1Wh-questions205
3.13.2.2Yes/no-questions208
3.13.2.3Alternative questions209
3.13.2.4Question tags209
3.13.2.5Interrogatives in general: Distribution212
3.13.2.6Question types: Distribution213
3.13.2.7Choice between interrogative who and whom215
3.13.2.8Auxiliary do in independent interrogative clauses216
3.13.3Exclamative clauses220
3.13.4Imperative clauses220
3.13.4.1The realization of imperative clauses221
3.13.4.2Imperative clauses: Distribution222
3.14Unembedded dependent clauses224
3.15Non-clausal material225
3.15.1Non-clausal material in writing225
3.15.2Non-clausal material in conversation226
Section C.Key word classes and their phrases229
Chapter 4.Nouns, pronouns, and the simple noun phrase231
4.1Overview of nominals in discourse232
4.1.1Use of nominals in discourse232
4.1.1.1Density and types of nominal elements232
4.1.1.2The role of nominal elements in discourse233
4.1.1.3Establishing reference234
4.1.1.4Chains of reference236
4.1.2Pronouns v. full noun phrases237
4.1.3The forms of anaphoric expressions239
4.1.4Forms of anaphoric expression in relation to distance240
4.2The basic structure of noun-headed phrases242
4.3Types of nouns243
4.3.1Use of countable nouns in Text samples244
4.3.2Use of uncountable nouns in Text samples244
4.3.2.1Countable and uncountable uses of nouns245
4.3.2.2Plural uncountables246
4.3.3Proper nouns246
4.3.3.1Initial capitals247
4.3.3.2Proper nouns regularly occurring with the definite article247
4.3.3.3Proper nouns functioning as common nouns248
4.3.4Collective nouns249
4.3.4.1Collocations of quantifying collectives250
4.3.5Unit nouns251
4.3.5.1Collocations of unit nouns252
4.3.6Quantifying nouns253
4.3.6.1Collocations of types of quantifying nouns253
4.3.6.2Pair v. couple256
4.3.7Species nouns256
4.3.7.1Species nouns: Distribution257
4.3.8Noun v. determiner258
4.4Determiners259
4.4.1The articles260
4.4.1.1The indefinite article260
4.4.1.2The zero article262
4.4.1.3The definite article264
4.4.1.4Generic reference266
4.4.1.5Reference patterns of definite noun phrases267
4.4.1.6Definite and indefinite articles: Distribution268
4.4.1.7Definite and indefinite articles in relation to syntactic role270
4.4.1.8Definite determiners: Distribution271
4.4.2Possessive determiners272
4.4.2.1Possessive determiners: Distribution272
4.4.3Demonstrative determiners273
4.4.3.1Demonstrative determiners: Distribution275
4.4.4Quantifiers276
4.4.4.1Quantifiers: Distribution278
4.4.5Numerals279
4.4.5.1Numerals across the registers280
4.4.6Semi-determiners281
4.4.6.1Other uses of the semi-determiners282
4.4.6.2Semi-determiners: Distribution283
4.4.7wh-determiners284
4.4.8Determiner v. pronoun285
4.5Number285
4.5.1Regular plurals285
4.5.1.1Plurals of words ending in -o286
4.5.2Irregular plurals286
4.5.3Latin and Greek plurals287
4.5.4Zero plurals289
4.5.5Plural-only nouns and nouns in -S290
4.5.6Singular v. plural nouns: Distribution291
4.6Case292
4.6.1The form of the genitive293
4.6.1.1Genitive v. common case294
4.6.2The frequency of genitive case forms294
4.6.3Specifying genitives294
4.6.4Classifying genitives295
4.6.4.1Classifying genitives: Use296
4.6.5Genitives of time296
4.6.6Genitives of measure296
4.6.7Elliptic genitives297
4.6.8Other independent genitives298
4.6.8.1Independent genitives unsupported by the linguistic context298
4.6.9Group genitives298
4.6.10The double genitive299
4.6.11Density of genitives300
4.6.12Choice between s-genitives and of-phrases301
4.6.12.1S-genitives and of-phrases overall302
4.6.12.2S-genitives and of-phrases and the dependent noun303
4.6.12.3Meanings of s-genitives and of-phrases304
4.6.12.4S-genitives and of-phrases and length305
4.6.12.5S-genitives and of-phrases and information status306
4.6.12.6S-genitives and of-phrases in collocations306
4.6.12.7Summary of choice between s-genitives and of-phrases307
4.6.13Choice between elliptic genitives and of-constructions307
4.6.13.1Elliptic genitives v. of-constructions: Distribution308
4.6.14Choice between the double genitive and related constructions308
4.6.14.1The double genitive v. corresponding constructions with possessive pronouns308
4.6.14.2The double genitive v. ordinary of-phrases310
4.7Gender312
4.7.1Lexical expression of gender312
4.7.1.1Words for masculine/feminine gender313
4.7.1.2Lexical means of expressing dual gender reference315
4.7.2Gender-specific v. dual gender pronoun reference316
4.7.2.1Grammatical means for dual gender reference317
4.7.3Personal v. non-personal reference with pronouns317
4.8Noun formation318
4.8.1Derived nouns318
4.8.1.1Derivational prefixes used to form new nouns319
4.8.1.2Some common derivational suffix patterns320
4.8.1.3Frequency of common noun derivational suffixes322
4.8.1.4Productivity of common noun derivations322
4.8.2Formation of nouns through compounding325
4.8.2.1Noun compounds in conversation and news in AmE325
4.9The role of pronouns in discourse327
4.10Personal pronouns327
4.10.1Specific reference328
4.10.1.1Problems in the use of first person plural pronouns328
4.10.1.2Problems in the use of second person pronouns329
4.10.1.3Problems in the use of third person pronouns330
4.10.2Referring to people in general330
4.10.3Special problems with collective nouns331
4.10.4Special uses of it331
4.10.5Personal pronouns: Distribution332
4.10.6Nominative v. accusative forms of personal pronouns334
4.10.6.1Pronoun choice after forms of be334
4.10.6.2Pronoun choice after as and than335
4.10.6.3Pronoun choice in coordinated noun phrases336
4.10.6.4Pronoun choice in peripheral and non-integrated noun phrases338
4.10.6.5Summary of factors affecting pronoun case choice338
4.11Possessive pronouns339
4.11.1The type a friend of mine340
4.11.2Possessive pronouns: Distribution340
4.12Reflexive pronouns341
4.12.1Reflexive pronouns: Distribution343
4.12.2Emphatic reflexive pronouns344
4.13Reciprocal pronouns345
4.13.1Reciprocal pronouns: Distribution345
4.14Demonstrative pronouns346
4.14.1Demonstrative pronouns: Distribution347
4.14.2This/these in academic prose348
4.14.3Those with postmodifying phrases or clauses348
4.14.4The demonstrative pronoun that in conversation348
4.14.5That in general349
4.15Indefinite pronouns350
4.15.1Indefinite pronouns: Distribution351
4.15.2The pronoun one351
4.15.2.1The pronoun one: Distribution352
4.16Other pronouns353
Chapter 5.Verbs355
5.1Major verb functions and classes356
5.1.1Frequency of lexical, modal, and primary auxiliary verbs356
5.1.2Distribution of lexical verbs and copula be across registers357
5.2Single-word lexical verbs359
5.2.1Classification of verbs into semantic domains359
5.2.1.1Major semantic domains of single-word verbs360
5.2.1.2Distribution of semantic domains363
5.2.1.3Semantic domains of verbs364
5.2.2Most common lexical verbs371
5.2.2.1Overall use of the most common lexical verbs371
5.2.2.2Most common verbs in each register373
5.2.3Verbs with animate and inanimate subjects378
5.2.4Valency patterns for single-word lexical verbs380
5.2.4.1Valencies of common verbs across semantic domains382
5.2.4.2Variation in verb valency patterns384
5.2.4.3Intransitive and monotransitive patterns384
5.2.4.4Intransitive, monotransitive, and complex transitive patterns386
5.2.4.5Intransitive, monotransitive, and ditransitive patterns387
5.2.4.6Monotransitive and ditransitive but not intransitive patterns388
5.2.4.7Verbs taking almost all patterns389
5.2.4.8General patterns391
5.2.5Regular lexical verb inflections392
5.2.5.1Consonant doubling of regularly inflected verbs393
5.2.5.2Doubling of base-final / followed by -ed across dialects393
5.2.6Irregular lexical verb inflections393
5.2.6.1Classes of irregular verbs394
5.2.6.2Regular and irregular forms395
5.2.6.3Got and gotten398
5.2.7Verb derivation399
5.2.7.1Most frequent verb derivational affixes399
5.2.7.2Productivity of verb derivational affixes400
5.3Multi-word lexical verbs403
5.3.1Features distinguishing multi-word verb combinations403
5.3.1.1Multi-word combinations functioning as different structural categories405
5.3.2Phrasal verbs407
5.3.2.1Semantic domains of phrasal verbs407
5.3.2.2Register distribution of phrasal verbs408
5.3.2.3The most common phrasal verbs408
5.3.2.4Productivity of particular verbs and adverbial particles412
5.3.3Prepositional verbs413
5.3.3.1Semantic domains of prepositional verbs414
5.3.3.2Register distribution of prepositional verbs414
5.3.3.3The most common prepositional verbs415
5.3.3.4Productivity of particular verbs and prepositions421
5.3.4Phrasal-prepositional verbs422
5.3.4.1Register distribution of phrasal-prepositional verbs422
5.3.4.2The most common phrasal-prepositional verbs423
5.3.5Other multi-word verb constructions425
5.4Main and auxiliary functions of primary verbs426
5.4.1Be426
5.4.2Have427
5.4.3Do428
5.4.3.1Main verb do in idiomatic expressions428
5.4.3.2Do as pro-verb428
5.4.3.3Register distribution of main verb and pro-verb do429
5.4.3.4Auxiliary do in emphatic function430
5.4.3.5Lexical associations of emphatic do431
5.4.3.6Auxiliary do-support in negatives and interrogatives432
5.5Copular verbs433
5.5.1Verbs functioning as copulas434
5.5.2Complements of copular verbs434
5.5.3Register distribution of copular verbs and common predicative adjectives435
5.5.3.1Current (non-sensory) copular verbs437
5.5.3.2Sensory copular verbs439
5.5.3.3Resulting copular verbs441
5.5.4Valency patterns of the copulas be, seem, and appear443
5.5.4.1Complement types with be, seem, and appear444
5.5.4.2Subject and complement types with be446
Chapter 6.Variation in the verb phrase: Tense, aspect, voice, and modality449
6.1Structure and meaning distinctions in the verb phrase450
6.2Tense451
6.2.1Basic tense and time distinctions451
6.2.1.1Simple present tense marking past or future time452
6.2.1.2Past tense in reported speech453
6.2.1.3The marking of future time454
6.2.2Register distribution of tense and modality454
6.2.3Lexical associations of present and past tense457
6.3Aspect458
6.3.1Perfect and progressive aspect across registers and dialects459
6.3.1.1Register distribution of perfect and progressive aspect459
6.3.1.2Perfect and progressive aspect across dialects460
6.3.2Perfect aspect461
6.3.2.1Lexical associations of present perfect aspect462
6.3.2.2Present perfect forms of get and have across dialects464
6.3.2.3Present perfect aspect v. simple past tense465
6.3.2.4Lexical associations of past perfect aspect466
6.3.2.5Past perfect aspect v. simple past tense467
6.3.3Progressive aspect469
6.3.3.1Lexical associations of progressive aspect469
6.4Active and passive voice473
6.4.1Register distribution of active and passive voice474
6.4.2Lexical associations of the passive476
6.4.2.1Verbs that commonly occur in the passive476
6.4.2.2Verbs common with the get passive479
6.4.2.3Verbs uncommon in the passive480
6.5Complex combinations of aspect and voice481
6.6Modals and semi-modals482
6.6.1Distribution of modals and semi-modals484
6.6.2Individual modals/semi-modals across registers and dialects485
6.6.3Lexical associations of modality489
6.6.4Extrinsic v. intrinsic uses of individual modals489
6.6.4.1The permission/possibility/ability modals489
6.6.4.2The obligation/necessity modals and semi-modals492
6.6.4.3The volition/prediction modals and semi-modals493
6.7Combinations of modal verbs with marked aspect or voice495
6.8Sequences of modals and semi-modals499
Chapter 7.Adjectives and adverbs501
7.1Overview502
7.1.1Use of adjectives and adverbs502
7.2Defining characteristics of adjectives503
7.2.1Attributive and predicative adjectives across registers504
7.2.2Central and peripheral adjectives505
7.2.3Adjectives strongly associated with attributive or predicative position506
7.3Semantic grouping of adjectives506
7.4Attributive adjectives508
7.4.1Semantic domains of attributive adjectives508
7.4.2Most common attributive adjectives509
7.5Predicative adjectives513
7.5.1Most common predicative adjectives514
7.6Adjectives in other syntactic roles516
7.6.1Postposed adjectives516
7.6.2Adjectives as noun phrase heads517
7.6.3Adjectives with a clause linking function518
7.6.4Adjectives as exclamations518
7.6.5Adjectives as detached predicatives518
7.7Comparative and superlative degree519
7.7.1Gradable adjectives with -er and -est519
7.7.2Inflectional v. phrasal comparison520
7.7.3Inflectional comparison across registers521
7.7.4Phrasal comparison with more and most522
7.7.5Doubly marked comparatives and superlatives523
7.7.6Adjectives with superlative or absolute meanings523
7.8Comparative clauses and other degree complements524
7.8.1Comparative constructions across registers525
7.9Formation of adjectives527
7.9.1Participial adjectives527
7.9.1.1Common participial adjectives527
7.9.2Derived adjectives527
7.9.2.1Common adjectives with derivational suffixes528
7.9.3Adjectival compounds530
7.9.3.1Distribution of adjectival compounds532
7.10Adjectives in combination533
7.10.1Repeated comparative adjectives533
7.10.2The intensifiers good and and nice and534
7.11Overview of adverbs535
7.12The form of adverbs536
7.12.1Formation of adverbs536
7.12.1.1Adverb forms537
7.12.2Adverbs and adjectives with the same form539
7.12.2.1Good and real as adverbs540
7.12.3Comparative and superlative forms541
7.13Syntactic roles of adverbs542
7.13.1Adverbs modifying adjectives542
7.13.1.1Adverbs modifying adjectives in conversation and academic prose542
7.13.2Adverbs modifying other adverbs543
7.13.2.1Adverbs modifying adverbs in conversation and academic prose543
7.13.3Adverbs modifying other elements545
7.13.4Adverbs as complements of prepositions545
7.13.5Adverbs as clause elements: Adverbials546
7.13.6Adverbs with degree complements546
7.13.7Adverbs standing alone547
7.14Semantic categories of adverbs548
7.14.1Importance of context in the semantics of adverbs548
7.14.2Description of semantic categories549
7.14.2.1Place549
7.14.2.2Time549
7.14.2.3Manner550
7.14.2.4Degree551
7.14.2.5Additive/restrictive553
7.14.2.6Stance553
7.14.2.7Linking555
7.14.2.8Other meanings556
7.14.3Semantic domains of adverbs in conversation and academic prose556
7.15Discourse choices for degree adverbs as modifiers560
7.15.1Amplifiers in conversation and academic prose560
7.15.2Degree modifiers other than amplifiers in conversation and academic prose562
Section D.More complex structures656
Chapter 8.Complex noun phrases567
8.1Overview568
8.1.1Register distribution of noun phrases with pre- and postmodifiers572
8.1.2Co-occurrence of modifiers with head noun types574
8.1.3Discourse distribution of noun phrase types in academic prose579
8.2Structural types of premodification582
8.2.1Structural types of premodification across registers583
8.3Meaning relations expressed by noun + noun sequences584
8.3.1Noun + noun sequences across registers586
8.3.2Plural nouns as premodifiers588
8.4Noun phrases with multiple premodifiers591
8.4.1Length of sequences of premodifiers591
8.4.2Order of multiple premodifiers592
8.4.3Coordinated premodifiers595
8.5Restrictive v. non-restrictive postmodifiers596
8.5.1Distribution of restrictive v. non-restrictive relative clauses597
8.6Major structural types of postmodification598
8.6.1Postmodifier types across registers600
8.7Postmodification by finite relative clause602
8.7.1The discourse choice among relativizers603
8.7.1.1Variant relativizers in non-standard dialects604
8.7.1.2Distribution of relativizers across registers604
8.7.1.3Who v. which, that, and zero607
8.7.1.4Who v. whom, that, and zero608
8.7.1.5Which v. that610
8.7.1.6Discourse choice between whose and of which612
8.7.1.7Whose v. of which across registers613
8.7.1.8Discourse choice of the zero relativizer614
8.7.2Grammatical role of the relative clause gap616
8.7.2.1Relative clause gaps in conversation617
8.7.3Subject v. non-subject head nouns618
8.7.4Relative clauses with adverbial gaps619
8.7.4.1Relative adverbs across registers619
8.7.4.2Head nouns taking relative clauses with adverbial gaps621
8.8Postmodification by non-finite clause624
8.8.1Participle clauses as postmodifiers625
8.8.1.1Passive and -ing forms of verbs in postmodifying participle clauses v. relative clauses625
8.8.2To-clauses as postmodifiers627
8.8.2.1Structural types of postmodifying to-clause627
8.9Postmodification by prepositional phrase628
8.9.1Common prepositions in postmodifying prepositional phrases629
8.9.2Choice of prepositional phrase v. relative clause631
8.10Postmodification by appositive noun phrase632
8.10.1Appositive noun phrases in news and academic prose633
8.11Noun phrases with multiple postmodifiers634
8.11.1Order of constituents in postmodifier complexes636
8.12Noun complement clauses v. nominal postmodifiers639
8.13Structural types of noun complement clause639
8.13.1Noun complement clause types across registers641
8.14Head nouns taking noun complement clauses642
8.14.1Head nouns taking that-clauses642
8.14.1.1Head nouns that take both that-complement clauses and relative clauses644
8.14.2Head nouns taking to-clauses646
8.14.3Head nouns taking of + ing-clauses647
8.14.4Head nouns taking wh-interrogative clauses650
Chapter 9.The form and function of complement clauses651
9.1Overview652
9.1.1Complementation by clauses652
9.1.2Structural types of complement clause652
9.1.3Grammatical positions of complement clauses653
9.2That-clauses654
9.2.1Discourse functions of that-clauses654
9.2.2Post-predicate that-clauses – controlled by verbs655
9.2.2.1Structural patterns655
9.2.2.2Controlling verbs, by semantic domain656
9.2.2.3Common controlling verbs across registers661
9.2.3Verbs taking extraposed that-clauses664
9.2.4Subject noun phrases with subject predicative that-clauses664
9.2.5That-clauses controlled by adjectival predicates665
9.2.5.1Adjectival predicates taking post-predicate that-clauses665
9.2.5.2Adjectival predicates taking extraposed that-clauses666
9.2.6Register distribution of that-clause types668
9.2.7Pre-predicate v. extraposed that-clauses669
9.2.7.1Register factors670
9.2.7.2Information structure671
9.2.7.3Grammatical factors672
9.2.7.4Topic and style673
9.2.8Retention v. omission of the that complementizer673
9.2.8.1Register factors674
9.2.8.2Discourse factors favoring that omission674
9.2.8.3Discourse factors favoring that retention675
9.3Wh-clauses676
9.3.1Structural types of wh-clauses676
9.3.2Post-predicate wh-clauses controlled by verbs678
9.3.2.1Grammatical patterns678
9.3.2.2Controlling verbs, by semantic domain679
9.3.2.3Common controlling verbs across registers681
9.3.2.4Post-predicate wh-clauses introduced by whether and if682
9.3.2.5Common verbs controlling whether- and if-clauses684
9.4Infinitive clauses686
9.4.1Overview686
9.4.2Post-predicate infinitive clauses controlled by verbs686
9.4.2.1Grammatical patterns686
9.4.2.2Pattern 1: Verb + to-clause687
9.4.2.3Pattern 2: Verb + NP + to-clause688
9.4.2.4Pattern 2: NP2 + passive verb + to-clause690
9.4.2.5Pattern 3: Verb + for NP + to-clause690
9.4.2.6Register distribution of verb patterns691
9.4.2.7Controlling verbs, by semantic domain692
9.4.2.8Interaction between the characteristics of controlling verbs700
9.4.2.9Common controlling verbs across registers701
9.4.3Verbs taking extraposed to-clauses706
9.4.4Subject noun phrases and subject predicative to-clauses707
9.4.5To-clauses controlled by adjectives708
9.4.5.1Grammatical patterns708
9.4.5.2Adjectives taking post-predicate to-clauses709
9.4.5.3Adjectival predicates taking extraposed to-clauses712
9.4.6Grammatical distribution of to-clauses713
9.4.7Pre-predicate v. extraposed to-clauses715
9.4.7.1Register factors715
9.4.7.2Information structure717
9.4.7.3Grammatical complexity719
9.4.7.4Stylistic preference720
9.4.8Object-to-subject raising v. extraposed to-clauses with adjectives720
9.4.8.1Register factors721
9.4.8.2Grammatical complexity and information packaging721
9.4.8.3Stylistic preference723
9.4.9Subject-to-subject raising v. extraposed that-clauses723
9.4.9.1Information packaging723
9.4.9.2Register factors724
9.4.9.3Clauses with seem and appear725
9.4.9.4Clauses with likely and unlikely726
9.4.10To-clause v. bare infinitive clause with dare and help727
9.4.10.1Dialect factors727
9.4.10.2Register factors728
9.4.10.3The pattern to help + infinitive729
9.4.11Try + to + verb v. try + and + verb730
9.4.11.1Distributional factors730
9.5Ing-clauses732
9.5.1Overview732
9.5.2Post-predicate ing-clauses controlled by verbs732
9.5.2.1Grammatical patterns732
9.5.2.2Controlling verbs, by semantic domain733
9.5.2.3Common controlling verbs across registers738
9.5.3Adjectival predicates controlling ing-clauses741
9.5.4Post-predicate ing-clauses across registers742
9.5.5Objective v. possessive NP with ing-clauses742
9.5.5.1Register distribution743
9.6Ellipsis and pro-form substitution in post-predicate complement clauses743
9.6.1Verbs occurring commonly with ellipsis and pro-form substitution744
9.7Choice of complement clause type746
9.7.1Register distribution, structural factors, and semantic factors746
9.7.2Lexico-grammatical factors748
9.7.3That-clauses v. non-finite clauses748
9.7.4Infinitive v. ing-clause750
Chapter 10.Adverbials753
10.1Overview754
10.1.1The three classes of adverbial755
10.1.1.1Frequency of the three classes of adverbial757
10.1.2Syntactic realizations of adverbials759
10.1.2.1Syntactic realizations of the three adverbial classes760
10.1.3Positions of adverbials in the clause762
10.1.3.1Frequencies of positions of adverbials764
10.1.4Adverbial variation in relation to other elements767
10.2Circumstance adverbials768
10.2.1Semantic categories of circumstance adverbials768
10.2.1.1Place768
10.2.1.2Time769
10.2.1.3Process769
10.2.1.4Contingency771
10.2.1.5Extent/degree772
10.2.1.6Addition/restriction772
10.2.1.7Recipient773
10.2.1.8Other semantic relationships773
10.2.1.9Overlap and ambiguity774
10.2.2Distribution of semantic categories775
10.2.3Overview of syntactic realizations of semantic categories779
10.2.4Syntactic realizations of circumstance adverbials (excluding clauses)781
10.2.4.1Semantic categories within syntactic forms781
10.2.4.2Length of prepositional phrases783
10.2.4.3Diversity in adverb and prepositional phrase circumstance adverbials785
10.2.5Most common circumstance adverbials788
10.2.6Position of circumstance adverbials793
10.2.6.1Associations between positions and semantic categories794
10.2.6.2Relationships between position, grammatical structure, and length798
10.2.7Circumstance adverbials in series802
10.2.7.1Heterosemantic place, time, and manner series803
10.2.7.2Homosemantic place, time, and manner series807
10.2.7.3Series of three and more adverbials809
10.2.8Clauses as circumstance adverbials810
10.2.8.1Semantic categories of circumstance adverbial clauses811
10.2.8.2Distribution of clausal semantic categories813
10.2.8.3Syntactic forms of circumstance adverbial clauses818
10.2.8.4Distribution of clausal syntactic forms818
10.2.8.5Dangling participles822
10.2.8.6Positions of adverbial clauses823
10.2.8.7Subordinators and adverbial clauses830
10.2.8.8Subordinators with non-finite adverbial clauses831
10.2.8.9Most common subordinators across registers833
10.2.8.10Common subordinators with multiple semantic roles838
10.2.8.11Though as subordinator v. linking adverbial842
10.2.8.12Conditional clauses with if v. subject-operator inversion844
10.3Stance adverbials845
10.3.1Semantic categories of stance adverbials846
10.3.1.1Epistemic stance adverbials846
10.3.1.2Attitude adverbials848
10.3.1.3Style adverbials849
10.3.1.4Ambiguity with other adverbial classes849
10.3.1.5Distribution of semantic categories851
10.3.2Syntactic realizations of stance adverbials853
10.3.2.1Distribution of syntactic forms854
10.3.2.2Sentence relatives as stance adverbials859
10.3.3Most common stance adverbials across registers860
10.3.4Positions of stance adverbials864
10.3.5Other discourse functions of stance adverbials866
10.4Linking adverbials867
10.4.1Semantic categories of linking adverbials867
10.4.1.1Enumeration and addition867
10.4.1.2Summation868
10.4.1.3Apposition868
10.4.1.4Result/inference869
10.4.1.5Contrast/concession870
10.4.1.6Transition871
10.4.1.7Overlap of linking adverbials and other adverbial classes871
10.4.1.8Distribution of semantic categories872
10.4.2Syntactic realizations of linking adverbials876
10.4.2.1Distribution of syntactic forms876
10.4.3Most common linking adverbials878
10.4.3.1Most common linking adverbials in conversation and academic prose878
10.4.3.2Stylistic preferences for linking adverbials881
10.4.4Positions of linking adverbials882
Section E.Grammar in a wider perspective885
Chapter 11.Word order and related syntactic choices887
11.1Overview888
11.1.1Information flow888
11.1.2Focus, emphasis, contrast, and intensification889
11.1.3Weight890
11.2Word order890
11.2.1Grammatical principles of word order891
11.2.2Fronting892
11.2.2.1Fronted objects and other nominals892
11.2.2.2Fronted predicatives894
11.2.2.3Fronted infinitive predicates897
11.2.2.4Fronted ed- and ing-predicates898
11.2.2.5Fronting in dependent clauses900
11.2.2.6Fronting in exclamations901
11.2.2.7Fronting: Distribution901
11.2.3Inversion of subject and verb or operator903
11.2.3.1Subject-verb inversion903
11.2.3.2Subject-operator inversion907
11.2.3.3Inversion after the linking forms so, nor, and neither909
11.2.3.4Special cases of inversion in independent clauses909
11.2.3.5Inversion in dependent clauses910
11.2.3.6Inversion in reporting clauses913
11.2.3.7Reporting clauses in fiction and news914
11.2.3.8Inversion in general: Distribution917
11.2.4Word-order options at the end of the clause918
11.2.4.1The placement of direct and indirect objects919
11.2.4.2Pronoun sequences as direct and indirect object920
11.2.4.3Clauses with direct objects and object predicatives922
11.2.4.4The placement of objects of phrasal verbs923
11.3The passive927
11.3.1Types of passive construction927
11.3.2Passives across syntactic positions and registers928
11.3.3The long passive931
11.3.3.1Length of subject v. agent phrase in long passives931
11.3.3.2Givenness of subject v. agent phrase932
11.3.4Comparison of discourse functions of the long and short passive934
11.4Existential there934
11.4.1The grammatical status of existential there935
11.4.2Variation in the verb phrase936
11.4.2.1Verb constructions other than simple be936
11.4.3The notional subject937
11.4.4Adverbial expansions938
11.4.5Existential and locative there939
11.4.6Simple v. complex existential clauses940
11.4.7Discourse functions of existential clauses942
11.4.8Existential clause v. locative inversion945
11.4.8.1Existential clause v. locative inversion: Distribution945
11.4.9Existential constructions with there v. have946
11.5Dislocation947
11.5.1Prefaces948
11.5.2Noun phrase tags948
11.5.3Prefaces and noun phrase tags: Distribution948
11.6Clefting950
11.6.1It-clefts950
11.6.2Wh-clefts951
11.6.3Reversed wh-clefts951
11.6.4Cleft constructions: Distribution952
11.7Syntactic choices in conversation v. academic prose955
Chapter 12.The grammatical marking of stance957
12.1Overview958
12.1.1Paralinguistic and non-linguistic devices959
12.1.2Lexical marking of stance960
12.2Major grammatical devices used to express stance961
12.2.1Variability in the structural characteristics of stance devices963
12.3Major semantic distinctions conveyed by stance markers964
12.3.1Epistemic stance964
12.3.2Attitudinal stance966
12.3.3Style of speaking stance967
12.4Attribution of stance to the speaker or writer968
12.4.1Explicit attribution of stance968
12.4.2Implicit attribution of stance to the speaker/writer969
12.4.3Ambiguous attribution of stance969
12.5Register differences in the marking of stance970
12.5.1Major stance devices across registers970
12.5.2Stance adverbials across registers973
12.5.3Stance complement constructions across registers976
Chapter 13.Lexical expressions in speech and writing979
13.1Overview980
13.2Lexical bundles982
13.2.1Operational definition of lexical bundles984
13.2.1.1Lexical bundles in conversation and academic prose985
13.2.2Key to lists of lexical bundles993
13.2.3Lexical bundles in conversation994
13.2.3.1Personal pronoun + lexical verb phrase (+ complement-clause fragment)995
13.2.3.2Pronoun/noun phrase + be +998
13.2.3.3Verb phrase with active verb999
13.2.3.4Yes-no question fragments1000
13.2.3.5Wh-question fragments1001
13.2.3.6Lexical bundles with wh-clause fragments1002
13.2.3.7Lexical bundles with to-clause fragments1003
13.2.3.8Verb + that-clause fragments1003
13.2.3.9Adverbial clause fragments1004
13.2.3.10Noun phrase expressions1005
13.2.3.11Prepositional phrase expressions1005
13.2.3.12Quantifier expressions1006
13.2.3.13Other expressions1007
13.2.3.14Meaningless sound bundles1007
13.2.4Lexical bundles in academic prose1007
13.2.4.1Noun phrase with of-phrase fragment1008
13.2.4.2Noun phrase with other post-modifier fragments1009
13.2.4.3Prepositional phrase with embedded of-phrase fragment1010
13.2.4.4Other prepositional phrase (fragment)1011
13.2.4.5Anticipatory it + verb phrase/adjective phrase1012
13.2.4.6Passive verb + prepositional phrase fragment1013
13.2.4.7Copula be + noun phrase/adjective phrase1014
13.2.4.8(Verb phrase +) that-clause fragment1014
13.2.4.9(Verb/adjective +) to-clause fragment1015
13.2.4.10Adverbial clause fragment1016
13.2.4.11Pronoun/noun phrase + be (+ …)1016
13.2.4.12Other expressions1017
13.3Idiomatic phrases1017
13.3.1Idiomatic phrases across registers1018
13.3.2Verb + noun phrase combinations with have, make, and take1019
13.4Free combinations of verb + particle1022
13.5Coordinated binomial phrases1023
13.5.1Key to lists of binomial phrases1024
13.5.2Verb and/or verb1024
13.5.3Noun and/or noun1026
13.5.4Adjective and/or adjective1027
13.5.5Adverb and/or adverb1029
Chapter 14.The grammar of conversation1031
14.1Introduction1032
14.1.1An example of conversation1034
14.1.2A functional survey of conversation1035
14.1.2.1Conversation takes place in the spoken medium1035
14.1.2.2Conversation takes place in shared context1036
14.1.2.3Conversation avoids elaboration or specification of meaning1038
14.1.2.4Conversation is interactive1039
14.1.2.5Conversation is expressive of politeness, emotion, and attitude1041
14.1.2.6Conversation takes place in real time1042
14.1.2.7Conversation has a restricted and repetitive repertoire1043
14.1.2.8Conversation employs a vernacular range of expression1044
14.1.2.9Lack of functional explanation1045
14.2Performance phenomena: Dysfluency and error1046
14.2.1Hesitations: Silent and filled pauses1047
14.2.1.1Frequency of filled and unfilled pauses1048
14.2.2Repeats1049
14.2.2.1Multiple consecutive repeats1049
14.2.2.2Frequency of repeats1051
14.2.2.3Repeats of forms with verb contractions1055
14.2.3Retrace-and-repair sequences: Reformulations1056
14.2.4Utterances left grammatically incomplete1057
14.2.5Syntactic blends1059
14.2.5.1Syntactic blends v. semantic gap-filling clauses1060
14.3The constructional principles of spoken grammar1060
14.3.1Principles of online production1061
14.3.1.1Parenthetical structures1062
14.3.1.2The ‘add-on’ strategy1062
14.3.1.3Clausal and non-clausal units (C-units)1063
14.3.1.4Distribution of clausal and non-clausal units1065
14.3.2Prefaces, bodies, and tags1066
14.3.2.1Prefaces and other utterance launchers1068
14.3.2.2The ambivalent grammatical status of utterance launchers1070
14.3.2.3Extending the body1073
14.3.2.4Tags1074
14.3.3More on non-clausal units: Inserts1076
14.3.3.1Interjections1078
14.3.3.2Greetings and farewells1080
14.3.3.3Discourse markers1081
14.3.3.4Attention signals1083
14.3.3.5Response elicitors1083
14.3.3.6Response forms1084
14.3.3.7Hesitators1087
14.3.3.8Various polite speech-act formulae1087
14.3.3.9Expletives1088
14.3.3.10Distribution of inserts1090
14.3.4Syntactic non-clausal units1093
14.3.4.1Elliptic replies1094
14.3.4.2Other types of syntactic non-clausal unit1095
14.3.4.3Elliptic phrasal non-clausal units in their context1098
14.3.5Ellipsis in clausal units1099
14.3.5.1Initial (situational) ellipsis1099
14.3.5.2Initial ellipsis1100
14.3.5.3Final (post-operator) ellipsis1101
14.3.5.4Medial (operator) ellipsis1102
14.3.5.5Distribution of initial, medial, and end ellipsis1102
14.4Selected topics in conversational grammar1103
14.4.1A closer look at vocatives1103
14.4.1.1The distribution of vocatives1105
14.4.2Conducive yes-no interrogatives1108
14.4.2.1Negative yes-no interrogatives1108
14.4.2.2Negative v. positive yes-no interrogatives1109
14.4.2.3Assertive yes-no questions1110
14.4.2.4Assertive v. non-assertive yes-no questions1110
14.4.3First person imperatives with let’s1111
14.4.3.1Common accompaniments of let’s1112
14.4.4Direct speech reporting (quoted speech)1113
14.4.4.1Using utterance-launchers to open quoted speech1113
14.4.4.2Repetition of reporting clauses1114
14.4.4.3Reporting clauses with go1114
14.4.4.4Opening quoted speech with be + like, all1114
14.4.4.5The past progressive with reporting verbs1115
14.4.5Vernacular or non-standard grammar1116
14.4.5.1Morphophonemic variants1117
14.4.5.2Morphological variants1117
14.4.5.3Morphosyntactic variants1118
14.4.5.4Syntactic variants1119
14.4.5.5Conclusion1120
Symbols and notational conventionsxvii
Appendix: Contractions1121
Notes1133
Bibliography1143
Lexical index1159
Conceptual index1189
