Cover not available

In:Creole Studies – Phylogenetic Approaches
Edited by Peter Bakker, Finn Borchsenius, Carsten Levisen and Eeva M. Sippola
[Not in series 211] 2017
► pp. 79–101

Get fulltext
PDF logo with download linkDownload Chapter PDF

Chapter 5
Creole typology I

Comparative overview of creole languages

 | Aarhus University
 | Aarhus University
Open Access logo
Available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives (CC BY-NC-ND) 4.0 license.

For any use beyond this license, please contact the publisher at rights@benjamins.nl.

Published online: 31 May 2017
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/z.211.05bak
Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of structural properties of creole languages based on widely different languages and spoken in a broad geographic range. We discuss phonology, morphology, syntax and lexicon. Phonologically, creoles tend to have average properties. Creoles are generally not endowed with a rich morphological apparatus, for instance contextual inflection is largely absent, but compounding, reduplication and some derivational processes are common. Syntactically, creoles are quite diverse in their nominal structures. Preverbal markers are common in the verb phrase. A relatively fixed constituent order is found in the basic transitive sentence, mostly SVO. These creole properties are compared with a sample of non-creole languages. The results suggest that lexically, creoles seem to be less mixed than European languages.
Article outline
  • 5.1Introduction
  • 5.2Phonology
    • 5.2.1Creole segmental inventories
    • 5.2.2Creole phonotactics
    • 5.2.3Creole suprasegmentals
    • 5.2.4Summary of Creole phonology
  • 5.3Creole morphology
    • 5.3.1Inflectional morphology
    • 5.3.2Compounding and derivational morphology, reduplication, compounding, suppletion
    • 5.3.3Creole morphology: summary
  • 5.4Creole constituent order
    • 5.4.1Sentential constituent order
    • 5.4.2Verb phrase word order
    • 5.4.3Serial verbs
    • 5.4.4Ditransitive constructions
    • 5.4.5Noun phrase word order
    • 5.4.6Attributive possession
    • 5.4.7Predicative possession
    • 5.4.8Summary: Creole constituent order
  • 5.5The creole lexicon
    • 5.5.1The lexicon: Mixedness
    • 5.5.2The lexicon: Quantity of roots and words
    • 5.5.3Expansion of the lexicon
    • 5.5.4Substrate
  • 5.6Conclusions
  • References
References (141)
References
Aboh, E. & Smith, N. S. H. 2015. Non-iconic reduplications in Eastern Gbe and Surinam. In Surviving the Middle Passage. The West Africa-Surinam Sprachbund, P. C. Muysken & N. S. H. Smith (eds), 241–260. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Adamson, L. & Smith, N. S. H. 2003. Productive derivational predicate reduplication in Sranan. In Kouwenberg (ed.), 83–92.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Adelaar, K. A. 1991. Some notes on the origin of Sri Lankan Malay. In Papers in Austronesian Linguistics, Vol. I, H. Steinhauer (ed.), 23–37. Canberra: The Australian National University.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Arends, J. 1989. Syntactic Developments in Sranan: Creolization as a Gradual Process. PhD dissertation, Katholieke Universiteit Nijmegen.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Baker, P. 1984. Agglutinated French articles in creole French: Their evolutionary significance. Te Reo 27: 89–129.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
1994. Creativity in creole genesis. In Creolization and Language Change, D. Adone & I. Plag (eds), 65–84. Tübingen: Niemeyer. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2003. Reduplication in Mauritian creole. In Kouwenberg (ed.), 211–218.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2012a. African words and calques in Mauritian creole. In Bartens & Baker (eds), 81–116.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2012b. The African vocabulary of Haitian and the lesser Antilles French creoles. In Bartens & Baker (eds), 117–133.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Baker, P. & Corne, C. 1986. Universals, substrata and the Indian Ocean Creoles. In Muysken & Smith (eds), 163–183. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Baker, P. & Hookoomsingh, V. Y. 1987. Diksyoner Kreol Morisyen/Dictionary of Mauritian Creole/ Dictionnaire du créole Mauricien. Paris: L’Harmattan.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bakker, P. 2000. Rapid language change: Creolization, intertwining, convergence. In Time Depth in Historical Linguistics, C. Renfrew, A. McMahon & R. L. Trask (eds), 585–620. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2003a. Pidgin inflectional morphology and its implications for creole morphology. In Yearbook of Morphology 2002, G. E. Booij & J. van Marle (eds), 3–33. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2003b. The absence of reduplication in pidgins. In Kouwenberg (ed.), 37–46.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2006. The Sri Lanka Sprachbund: The newcomers Portuguese and Malay. In Linguistic Areas. Convergence in Historical and Typological Perspective, Y. Matras, A. McMahon & N. Vincent (eds), 135–159. Houndmills: Palgrave MacMillan.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2008. The development of tense, mood and aspect in creole languages and the typology of affix order. In Interdependence of Diachronic and Synchronic Analyses [Studies in Language Companion Series 134], F. Josephson & I. Söhrman (eds), 43–59. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2014. Creoles and typology. Problems of sampling and definition. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 29(2): 437–455. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2015. Creole languages have no… – but they do have…. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 30(1): 167–176. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bakker, P. & Parkvall, M. 2005. Reduplication in pidgins and creoles. In Studies on Reduplication, B. Hurch (ed.), 511–532. Berlin: De Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bakker, P., Post M. & van der Voort H. 1994. TMA Particles and Auxiliaries. In Pidgins and Creoles. An Introduction [Creole Language Library 15], J. Arends, P. Muysken & N. S. H. Smith (eds), 247–258. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Baptista, M. 2011. On the development of verbal and nominal morphology in four lusophone creoles. Canadian Journal of Linguistics/Revue Canadienne de Linguistique 56(1): 7–35. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Baptista, M. & Guéron, J. (eds). 2007. Noun Phrases in Creole Languages: A Multi-Faceted Approach [Creole Language Library 31]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bartens, A. & Baker, P. (eds). 2012. Black Through White: African Words and Calques which Survived Slavery in Creoles and Transplanted European Languages. London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bickerton, D. 1981. Roots of Language. Ann Arbor MI: Karoma.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
1984. The Language Bioprogram Hypothesis. The Behavioral and Brain Sciences 7: 173–188. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. New York NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Booij, G. E. 1996. Inherent versus contextual inflection and the split morphology hypothesis. In Yearbook of Morphology 1995, G. E. Booij & J. van Marle (eds), 1–16. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Brousseau, A.-M. 2011. Mesure de la productivité morphologique des créoles: Au-delà des méthodes quantitatives. Canadian Journal of Linguistics/Revue Canadienne de Linguistique 56(1): 61–86. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bybee, J. L. 1985. Morphology: A Study of the Relation between Meaning and Form [Typological Studies in Language 9]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chien, Y. 2015. The lexical system of Yilan creole. In New Advances in Formosan Linguistics, E. Zeitoun, S. F. Teng & J. J. Wu (eds), 513–532. Canberra: Asia-Pacific Linguistics.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chinuk Wawa Dictionary Project. 2012. Chinuk Wawa kakwa nsayka ulman-tilixam ɬaska munk-kəmtəks nsayka / As our Elders Teach us to Speak it. Grand Ronde OR: Confederated Tribes of the Grand Ronde Community of Oregon.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Clements, J. C. 1991. Deletion as an Indicator of SVO -> SOV Shift. Language Variation and Change 2: 103–133. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2001. Word order shift and natural L2 acquisition in a Portuguese creole. In Romance Syntax, Semantics and L2 Acquisition [Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 217], C. Wiltshire & J. Camps (eds), 73–87. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2007. Korlai (Creole Portuguese). In Comparative Creole Syntax, J. Holm & P. Patrick (eds), 153–173. London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2013. Korlai structure dataset. In Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures Online, S. M. Michaelis, P. Maurer, M. Haspelmath, & M. Huber (eds). Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. <[URL]> (24 June 2015).
Comrie, B. 2011. Creoles and language typology. In Creoles, their Substrates and Language Typology [Typological Studies in Language 95], C. Lefebvre (ed.), 599–611. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
DeGraff, M. 2001. Morphology in creole genesis: Linguistics and ideology. In Ken Hale: A Life in Language, M. Kenstowicz (ed.), 53–122. Cambridge MA: The MIT Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dryer, M. S. 2013a. Order of subject, object and verb. In Dryer & Haspelmath (eds). <[URL]> (27 May 2014).
2013b. Prefixing vs. suffixing in inflectional morphology. In Dryer & Haspelmath (eds). <[URL]> (1 November 2014).
Dryer, M. S. & Haspelmath, M. (eds). 2013. The World Atlas of Linguistic Language Structures Online. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dutton, T. E. 1996. Hiri Motu. In Contact Languages. A Wider Perspective [Creole Language Library 17], S. G. Thomason (ed), 9–41. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Farquharson, J. T. 2007. Creole morphology revisited. In Deconstructing Creole [Typological Studies in Lanuage 73], U. Ansaldo, S. Matthews, & L. Lim (eds), 21–37. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Farquharson, J. & Baker, P. 2012. African morphemes in Jamaican creole. In Bartens & Baker (eds), 155–168.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Givón, T. 1982. Tense- aspect-modality: The Creole prototype and beyond. In Tense – Aspect: Between Semantics and Pragmatics [Typological Studies in Language 1], P. J. Hopper (ed.), 115–163. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Good, J. 2004. Tone and accent in Saramaccan: Charting a deep split in the phonology of a language. Lingua 114: 575–619. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2013. Typologizing grammatical complexities. Why creoles may be paradigmatically simple but syntagmatically average. In Creole Languages and Linguistic Typology [Benjamins Current Topics 57], P. Bhatt & T. Veenstra (eds), 47–93. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Also appeared in 2001. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 27: 1–47. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gooden, S. 2003. Reduplication in Jamaican creole: Semantic functions and prosodic constraints. In Kouwenberg (ed.), 93–103.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Goddard, C. 2011. Semantic Analysis. A Practical Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Grant, A. P. 2002. El chabacano zamboangueño, una lengua mezclada. Papia 12: 7–40.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2003. Reduplication in Mindanao Chabacano. In Kouwenberg (ed.), 213–220.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2009. Admixture, structural transmission, simplicity, and creolisation. In Simplicity and Complexity in Creoles and Pidgins, N. Faraclas & T. B. Klein (eds), 125–152. London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Greenberg, J. H. 1963. Some universals of grammar with particular reference to the order of meaningful elements. In Universals of Grammar, J. H. Greenberg (ed.), 73–113. Cambridge MA: The MIT Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ham, W. H. 1999. Tone Sandhi in Saramaccan. A case of substrate transfer? Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 14(1): 45–91. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hammarström, H. 2015. The basic word order typology: An exhaustive study. Paper presented at Diversity Linguistics: Retrospect and Prospect Conference, Leipzig, 3 May.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hammarström, H. & Parkvall M. 2016. Basic constituent order in pidgin and creole languages: Inheritance or universals? Journal of Language Contact 1: 65–69. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hancock, I. 1974. Lexical expansion within a closed system. In Sociocultural Dimensions of Language Change, B. Blount & M. Sanches (eds), 161–171. New York NY: Academic Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Haspelmath, M. & Michaelis, S. M. 2003. Ditransitive constructions: Creole languages in a cross-linguistic perspective. Creolica: Revue du Groupe Européen de Recherches en Langues Créoles. <[URL]>
Haspelmath, M. & Tadmor, U. (eds). 2009. Loanwords in the World’s Languages: A Comparative Handbook. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Haspelmath, M., Dryer, M. S., Gil, D. & Comrie, B. (eds). 2005. The World Atlas of Linguistic Language Structures. Oxford: OUP.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(eds). 2008. The World Atlas of Linguistic Language Structures Online. Munich: Max Planck Digital Library.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Heine, B. 1982. The Nubi Language of Kibera – An Arabic Creole. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Heine, B. & Kuteva, T. 2001. Attributive possession in creoles. In Pidgins and Creoles Archive 7 <[URL]>
Holm, J. A. 1988. Pidgins and Creoles, Vol. 1: Theory and Structure. Cambridge: CUP.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Holm, J. 2000. Introduction to Pidgins and Creoles. Cambridge: CUP. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Holm, J. & Patrick, P. L. (eds). 2007. Comparative Creole Syntax. London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Holm, J. 2008. Creolization and the fate of inflections. In Aspects of Language Contact. New Theoretical, Methodological and Empirical Findings with Special Focus on Romancisation Processes, T. Stolz, D. Bakker & R. S. Palomo (eds), 299–324. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Huber, M. & the APiCS Consortium. 2013a. Order of adposition and noun phrase. In Michaelis et al. (eds). Oxford: OUP. <[URL]> (1 November 2014).
. 2013b. Order of possessor and possessum. In Michaelis et al. (eds). Oxford: OUP. <[URL]> (7 June 2015).
Hussainmiya, B. A. 1987. Lost Cousins: The Malays of Sri Lanka, Occasional Paper, Vol. 2. Kebangsaan: Universiti Kebangsaan.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jacobs, M. 1932. Notes on the structure of Chinook jargon. Language 8: 27–50. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jourdan, C. 2004. Solomon Islands Pijin. Morphology and syntax. In A Handbook of Varieties of English: A Multimedia Reference Tool, Vol. 2: Morphology and Syntax, B. Kortmann & E. W. Schneider (eds), 702–719. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Klein, T. B. 2005. Phonological typology of phonemes in Portuguese- and Spanish-lexified creole languages. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Portuguese and Spanish Lexically Based Creoles. Orléans, 27–30 June.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2006a. Creole phonology typology: Phoneme inventory size, vowel quality distinctions and stop consonant series. In The Structure of Creole Words: Segmental, Syllabic and Morphological Aspects, P. Bhatt & I. Plag (eds), 3–21. Tübingen: Niemeyer. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2006b. Segmental typology of African creole languages . In Selected Proceedings of the 36th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, O. F. Arasanyin & M. Pemberton (eds), 42–50. Somerville MA: Cascadilla.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2011. Typology of creole phonology: Phoneme inventories and syllable templates. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 26(1): 155–193. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kouwenberg, S. 1992a. From OV to VO: Linguistic negotiation in the development of Berbice Dutch Creole. Lingua 88: 263–299. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
1992b. Cliticization of pronouns in Berbice Dutch and Eastern Ijo. In Atlantic Meets Pacific: A Global View of Pidginization and Creolization [Creole Language Library 11], F. X. Byrne & J. Holm (eds), 119–132. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
1994. A Grammar of Berbice Dutch Creole. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(ed.). 2003. Twice as Meaningful. Reduplication in Pidgins, Creoles and Other Contact Languages. London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kouwenberg, S. & LaCharité, D. 2004. Echoes of Africa: Reduplication in Caribbean creoles and Niger-Congo languages. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 19(2): 285–331. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2011. The typology of Caribbean creole reduplication. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 26(1): 194–218. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ladhams, J. 2012. Article agglutination and the African contribution to the Portuguese-based creoles. In A. Bartens & P. Baker (eds), 31–50.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lefebvre, C. 2001. On the semantic opacity of creole languages. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 16(2): 321–353. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2003. The emergence of productive morphology in creole languages: The case of Haitian Creole. In Yearbook of morphology 2002, G. E. Booij & J. van Marle (eds), 35–80. Dordrecht: Kluwer. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(ed.). 2011. Creoles, their Substrates, and Language Typology [Typological Studies in Language 95]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lesho, M. 2013. The Sociophonetics and Phonology of the Cavite Chabacano Vowel System. PhD dissertation, Ohio State University.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lipski, J. & Santoro, M. 2007. Zamboangueño (Creole Spanish). In Holm & Patrick (eds), 373–398.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Luís, A. R. 2010. The loss and survival of inflectional morphology: Contextual vs. inherent inflection in creoles. In Romance Linguistics 2009 [Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 315], S. Colina, A. Olarrea & A. Carvalho (eds), 323–336. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Maddieson, I. 1984. Patterns of Sounds. Cambridge: CUP. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2005a. Vowel quality inventories. In Haspelmath et al. (eds), 14–17.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2005b. Tone. In Haspelmath et al. (eds), 58–61.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2005c. Syllable structure. In Haspelmath et al. (eds), 54–57.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
McWhorter, J. & Good, J. 2012. A Grammar of Saramaccan Creole. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
McWhorter, J. H. 1998. Identifying the creole prototype. Vindicating a typological class. Language 74: 788–818. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2001. The world’s simplest grammars are creole grammars. Linguistic Typology 5(2–3): 125–166. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2005. Defining Creole. Oxford: OUP.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2011. Linguistic Simplicity and Complexity: Why Do Languages Undress? Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Michaelis, S. M., Maurer, P., Haspelmath, M. & Huber, M. 2013. The Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Structures. Oxford: OUP.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mufwene, S. S. 2008. Language Evolution: Contact, Competition and Change. London: Continuum. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mufwene, S. & Condon, N. (eds). 1993. Africanisms in Afro-American Language Varieties. Athens GA: University of Georgia Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
1997. Pidgin and Creole Linguistics. London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Muysken, P. & Law, P. 2001. Creole studies. A theoretical linguist’s field guide. Glot International 5(2): 47–57.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nordhoff, S. 2009. A Grammar of Upcountry Sri Lanka Malay. Utrecht: LOT.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Parkvall, M. 2000. Out of Africa. London: Battlebridge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Forthcoming. Afrolex: Lexical Africanisms in Atlantic Creoles and Related Varieties. London: Battlebridge.
Plag, I. 2005. Morphology in pidgins and creoles. In Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Vol. 8, K. Brown (ed.), 304–308. Oxford: Elsevier.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2008. Creoles as interlanguages: Inflectional morphology. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 23(1): 114–135. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2009. Creoles as interlanguages: Word-formation. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 24(2): 339–362. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rijkhoff, J. 2004. The Noun Phrase [Oxford Studies in Typology and Linguistic Theory]. Oxford: OUP.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Roberts, S. & Bresnan, J. 2008. Retained inflectional morphology in pidgins: A typological study. Linguistic Typology 12: 269–302. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Romaine, S. 1988. Pidgin and Creole languages. London: Longman.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Seuren, P. A. M. 1990. Serial verb constructions. In When Verbs Collide: Papers from the 1990 Ohio State Mini-Conference on Serial Verbs [Working Papers in Linguistics 39], B. D. Joseph & A. M. Zwicky (eds), 14–33. Columbus OH: The Ohio State University Department of Linguistics.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
1998. Western Linguistics: An Historical Introduction. Oxford: Whiley-Blackwell. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Seuren, P. A. M. & Wekker, H. 1986. Semantic transparency as a factor in creole genesis. In Muysken & Smith (eds), 57–70. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Singler, J. V. (ed.). 1990. Pidgin and Creole Tense-Mood-Aspect Systems [Creole Language Library 6]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sippola, E. 2011. Una gramatica descriptiva del Chabacano de Ternate. PhD dissertation, University of Helsinki.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Smith, I. R. 1979a. Convergence in South Asia: A creole example. Lingua 48: 193–222. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
1979b. Substrata versus universals in the formation of Sri Lanka Portuguese. In Papers in Pidgin and Creole linguistics, No 2, P. Mühlhäuser (ed.), 183–200. Canberra: Australian National University.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
1984. The development of morphosyntax in Sri Lanka Creole Portuguese. In York Papers in Linguistics, M. Sebba & L. Todd (eds), 291–301. York: University of York.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2013. Sri Lanka Portuguese. In Michaelis et al. (eds), 111–121.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Smith, N. S. H. 2001. Voodoo Chile: Differential substrate effects in Saramaccan and Haitian. In Creolization and Contact [Creole Language Library 23], N. Smith & T. Veenstra (eds), 43–80. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2008. Creole phonology. In The Handbook of Pidgin and Creole Studies, S. Kouwenberg & J. V. Singler (eds), 98–129. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sreedhar, M. V. 1974. Naga Pidgin: A Sociolinguistic Study on Interlingual Communication Patterns in Nagaland. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Languages.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Stassen, L. 2013. Predicative Possession. In Dryer & Haspelmath (eds). <[URL]> (24 June 2015)
Steinkrüger, P. O. 2003. Morphological processes of word formation in Chabacano (Philippine Spanish Creole). In Phonology and Morphology of Creole Languages, I. Plag (ed.), 53–68. Tübingen: Niemeyer. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2006. The puzzling case of Chabacano: Creolization, substrate, mixing and secondary contact. The Tenth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics (10-ICAL), Palawan, the Philippines. <[URL]> (23 June 2015)
2009. Inflectional morphology in a creole: A report on Chabacano (Philippine Spanish Creole). In On Inflection, P. O. Steinkrüger & M. Krifka (eds), 219–236. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tadmor, U. 2009. Loanwords in the world’s languages. Findings and results. In Haspelmath & Tadmor (eds), 55–75. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Trudgill, P. 2004. Linguistic and social typology: The Austronesian migrations and phoneme inventories. Linguistic Typology 8: 305–320. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Valdman, A. 1978. Le Créole: Structure, statut et origine. Paris: Klincksieck.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Veenstra, T. 1994. The acquisition of functional categories: The creole way. In Creolization and Language Change, D. Adone & I. Plag (eds), 99–117. Tübingen: Niemeyer. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Velupillai, V. 2015. Pidgins, Creoles and Mixed Languages. An Introduction [Creole Language Library 48]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Watson, R. L. & Biajo Ola, L. 1985. Juba Arabic for Beginners. Nairobi: Summer Institute of Linguistics.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wellens, I. 2005. The Nubi Language of Uganada: An Arabic Creole in Africa. Leiden: Brill. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Winford, D. 1993. Predication in Caribbean English Creoles [Creole Language Library 10]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cited by (2)

Cited by two other publications

Bakker, Peter
2025. Young Children Creating Grammars: Are Twins’ Languages Like Pidgins or Creoles?. In The Evolution, Acquisition and Development of Syntax, ► pp. 170 ff. DOI logo
Malon, Jake, Joshua Rojo, Benjean Fuderanan, Elenita Deguit & Lorena Tadena
2024. The Case of Cogtong’s Timori: Features, Usage and Vitality. Journal of Interdisciplinary Perspectives 2:11 DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 24 november 2025. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.

Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue