Cover not available

Article In: Writing/Reading Interface
Edited by Terry Joyce and Constanze Weth
[Written Language & Literacy 28:1] 2025
► pp. 144–171

Lexical comprehension and lexical literacy at the reading-spelling interface

Towards learner profiles in L2 German courses with additional literacy instruction

 | TU Braunschweig
 | University of Vienna
 | University of Burgundy
This content is being prepared for publication; it may be subject to changes.
Abstract
Developmental models of reading and spelling skills are generally based on assessments of early literacy skills in young children. The literacy development of children is contingent on the concurrent development of linguistic knowledge, strategies, and functional skills. In contrast, developing literacy in adults is characterized by heterogeneous spoken proficiencies during the acquisition of L2 reading and writing skills. In the present study, we investigate reading fluency and spelling skills in adults with emergent L2 literacy skills within an L2 German language course that included literacy instruction. We confirm that the reading and spelling skills of learners are inter-related as mediated through a shared common knowledge base. The study participants could be divided into two recognisable clusters (low- and high-performing learners), despite being tested at approximately the same point during the course. Both lexical comprehension and lexical literacy reliably determined spelling performance, even though lexical literacy was less informative in terms of predicting reading skills and overall literacy profiles. We discuss these results within the framework of Kim, Y-S. G. (2020). Interactive Dynamic Literacy Model: An integrative theoretical framework for reading-writing relations. In: R. A. Alves, T. Limpo, & R. Malatesha Joshi (Eds.). Reading-Writing Connections. Towards Integrative Literacy Science. Cham: Springer Nature. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar Interaction Dynamic Literacy Model and conclude with some considerations concerning the practical utility of establishing learner profiles.
Article outline
  • Introduction
  • Models of reading and writing
  • The focus of the study
  • Participants
  • Materials and procedure
    • Reading fluency
    • Spelling
    • Lexical comprehension
    • Lexical-level literacy
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • Author queries
  • References
References (54)
References
Adlof, S. M., Catts, H. W., & Little, T. D. (2006). Should the simple view of reading include a fluency component? Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 191, 933–958. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bear, D. R., Invernizzi, M., Johnston, F. & Templeton, S. (2020). Words Their Way. Word Study for Phonics, Vocabulary, and Spelling Instruction, Global Edition. Harlow, United Kingdom: Pearson Education Canada.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Berninger, V. W. (1999). Coordinating Transcription and Text Generation in Working Memory during Composing: Automatic and Constructive Processes. Learning Disability Quarterly 22 (2): 99–112. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Berninger, V. W., Abbott, R. D., Abbot, S. P., Graham, S., & Richards, T. (2002). Writing and reading: Connections between language by hand and language by eye. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 351, 39–56. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bunčić, D., Lippert, S. L., & Rabus, A. (Eds.) (2016). Biscriptuality: A sociolinguistic typology. Heidelberg: Winter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Carlisle, J. F., & Katz, L. A. (2006). Effects of word and morpheme familiarity on reading of derived words. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 191, 669–694. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Council of Europe (2022). Literacy And Second Language Learning for the Linguistic Integration of Adult Migrants (LASLLIAM) — Framework of Reference in Validation Phase.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cutting, L. E., & Scarborough, H. S. (2006). Prediction of Reading Comprehension: Relative Contributions of Word Recognition, Language Proficiency, and Other Cognitive Skills Can Depend on How Comprehension Is Measured. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10 (3), 277–299. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Do Manh, G., Edeleva, J., & Neef, M. (2021). Assessment literaler Kompetenzen in Alphabetisierungskursen. Info DaF, 48 (6), 582–597.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Edeleva, J., Do Manh, G., Förster, F., & Czinglar, Ch. (2022). Forschungsmethoden und -desiderate in der kontrastiven Alphabetisierung. In: B. Marschke (Ed.). Handbuch der kontrastiven Alphabetisierung. Studien Deutsch als Zweit- und Fremdsprache. Berlin: Erich Schmidt Verlag. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Feldmeier, A. (2015). Konzept für einen bundesweiten Alphabetisierungskurs. Überarbeitete Neuauflage./The Concept for a Nationwide Integration Course with Literacy Instruction. Nürnberg: Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge (BAMF). URL: [URL]Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Fellmer, T.-T., & Feldmeier, A. (2012). Von A bis Z — Leseheft für den Alphabetisierungskurs. Lesestufe 1./From A to Z — A Reading Companion for a Language Course with Literacy Instruction. Reading Stage 1. Stuttgart: Ernst Klett Sprachen.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Foorman, B. R., Koon, S., Petscher, Y., Mitchell, A., & Truckenmiller, A. (2015). Examining general and specific factors in the dimensionality of oral language and reading in 4th and 10th grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1071, 884–899. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Frith, U. (1986). A Developmental Framework for Developmental Dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 36 (1), 69–81. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gentry, J. R. (2004). The Science of Spelling: The explicit specifics that make great readers and writers (and spellers!). Portsmouth: Heinemann.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Guerrero Calle, S. (2020). Zweitschriftlernende in der deutschsprachigen Schweiz: In 300 Kurslektionen Alpha und A1?/ Learners of an Additional Script in German-speaking Switzerland: 300 Hours of Instruction for Alpha and A1? Unpublished PhD Thesis, University of Freiburg.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Günther, K. B. (1986). Ein Stufenmodell der Entwicklung kindlicher Lese- und Schreibstrategien. In: H. Brügelmann (Ed.), ABC und Schriftsprache: Rätsel für Kinder, Lehrer und Forscher (pp. 32–54). Konstanz: Faude.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Joshi, R., & Aaron, P. G. (2005). Spelling: Its development, assessment, instruction and the science of it. Perspectives, 311, 3–8.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kemp, N. (2009). The acquisition of spelling patterns: Early, late or never? In: C. Wood, & V. Connelly (Eds.), Contemporary Perspectives on Reading and Spelling (pp. 76–91). Park Square: Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kim, Y-S. G. (2020). Interactive Dynamic Literacy Model: An integrative theoretical framework for reading-writing relations. In: R. A. Alves, T. Limpo, & R. Malatesha Joshi (Eds.). Reading-Writing Connections. Towards Integrative Literacy Science. Cham: Springer Nature. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kim, Y.-S. G., & Graham, S. (2022). Expanding the Direct and Indirect Effects Model of Writing (DIEW): Reading-Writing Relations, and Dynamic Relations as a Function of Measurement/Dimensions of Written Composition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 114 (2), 215–238. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kim, Y.-S. G., & Park, S. (2019). Unpacking pathways using the direct and indirect effects model of writing (DIEW) and the contributions of higher order cognitive skills to writing. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 32(5), 1319–1343. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kim, Y.-S. G., & Wagner, R. K. (2015). Text (Oral) reading fluency as a construct in reading development: An investigation of its mediating role for children from grades 1 to 4. Scientifc Studies of Reading, 191, 224–242. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kim, Y-S. G., Wolters, A., & won Lee, J. (2024). Reading and writing relations are not uniform: They differ by the linguistic grain size, developmental phase, and measurement. Review of Educational Research, 94 (3), 311–342. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kirby, J. R., & Savage, R. S. (2008). Can the simple view deal with the complexities of reading? Literacy, 421, 75–82. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Koizumi, R., & In’nami, Y. (2013). Vocabulary knowledge and speaking proficiency among second language learners from novice to intermediate levels. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 41, 900–913. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Landgraf, S., Beyer, R., Hild, I., Schneider, N., Horn, E., Schaaddt, G., Foth, M., Pannekamp, A., & van der Meer, E. (2012). Impact of phonological processing skills on written language acquisition in illiterate adults. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 2 (Supplement 1), S129–S138. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lowie, W., & Verspoor, M. (2015). Variability and variation in second language acquisition orders: A dynamic reevaluation. Language Learning, 651 (11), 63–88. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Marshall, P. A. (2006). Informed consent in international health research. Journal of Empirical Research on Human Research Ethics: An International Journal, 1 (1), 25–42. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nation, I. S. P. (2016). Making and Using Word Lists for Language Learning and Testing. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Perfetti, C. A. (1997). The psycholinguistics of spelling and reading. In: C. A. Perfetti, L. Rieben, & M. Fayol (Eds.), Learning to spell: Research, theory, and practice across languages (pp. 21–38). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Perfetti, C. A., Rieben, L., & Fayol, M. (Eds.) (1997). Learning to spell: Research, theory, and practice across language. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Perfetti, C., & Stafura, J. (2014). Word knowledge in a theory of reading comprehension. Scientifc Studies of Reading, 181, 22–37. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pfost, M. (2015). Children’s phonological awareness as a predictor of reading and spelling: A systematic review of longitudinal research in German-speaking countries. Zeitschrift für Entwicklungspsychologie und pädagogische Psychologie/Journal of Developmental and Peagogical Psychology, 47 (3), 123–138. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pressley, M., Duke, N. K., Gaskins, I. W., Fingeret, L., Halladay, J., Hilden, K., et al. (2009). Working with struggling readers: Why we must get beyond the simple view of reading and visions of how it might be done. In: T. B. Gutkin, & C. R. Reynolds (Eds.), The handbook of school psychology (4th ed., pp. 522–546). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
R Core Team (2023). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria. [URL]Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rosebrock, C., Nix, D., Rieckmann, C., & Gold, A. (2021). Leseflüssigkeit fördern. Lautleseverfahren für die Primar- und Sekundarstufe. 7. Auflage./Developing Reading Fluency: Reading-Aloud-Techniques for Primary and Secondary Schools. Klett und Kallmeyer: Hannover.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rothman, J. (2013). Cognitive economy, non-redundancy and typological primacy in L3 acquisition: Evidence from initial stages of L3 Romance. In: Baauw, S., Dirjkoningen, F. & Pinto, M. (Eds.), Romance languages and linguistic theory 2011, (pp. 217–247). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2015). Linguistic and cognitive motivations for the Typological Primacy Model (TPM) of third language (L3) transfer: Timing of acquisition and proficiency considered. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18 (2), 179–190. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Samuels, S. J. (1979). The Method of Repeated Readings. The Reading Teacher, 321, 403–408.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Scharer, P., & Zutell, J. (2013). The development of spelling. In: J. Larson, & J. Marsh (Eds), The SAGE Handbook of Early Childhood Literacy, 2nd ed. SAGE Publications: London. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schatschneider, C., Fletcher, J. M., Francis, D. J., Carlson, C., & Foorman, B. R. (2004). Kindergarten prediction of reading skills: A longitudinal comparative analysis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 961, 265–282. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schneider, W., Blanke, I., Faust, V., & Küspert, P. (2011). Würzburger Leise Leseprobe — Revision. Ein Gruppentest für die Grundschule. Göttingen: Hogrefe.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schramm, K. (2021). Zur Entwicklung supranationaler Deskriptoren für die zweitsprachliche Alphabetisierung — das LASLLIAM-Projekt des Europarats./ Developing supranational descriptors for second language literacy — the LASLLIAM-Project of the European Council. Informationen Deutsch als Fremdsprache/Information German as a Foreign Language, 48 (6), pp. 571–581. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sebastián, Ch., & Moretti, R. (2012). Profiles of cognitive precursors to reading acquisition. Contributions to a developmental perspective of adult literacy. Learning and individual differences, 22 (5), 585–596. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Smyser, H., & Alt, M. (2018). Developing mental orthographic representations in refugee spellers with low literacy: How much input is too much? Journal of Research in Reading, 41 (3), 455–474. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Treiman, R., Cassar, M., Zukowski, A. (1994). What types of linguistic information do children use in spelling? The case of flaps. Child Development, 65 (5), 1318–1337. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tschirner, E., & Möhring, J. (2019). A Frequency Dictionary of German. UK: Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Usanova, I., & Schnoor, B. (2022). Approaching the concept of multiliteracies: Multilingual writing competence as an integrated model. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 25 (3), 144–165. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Valtin, R. (1994). Ein Stufenmodell des Rechtschreibenlernens. In: I. Naegele, & R. Valtin (Eds.). Rechtschreibunterricht in den Klassen 1–6. Grundlagen — Erfahrungen — Materialien (pp. 32–37). Frankfurt am Main: Arbeitskreis Grundschule.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Varnhagen, C. K., McCallum, M., & Burstow, M. (1997). Is children’s spelling naturally stage-like? Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 9 (5–6), 451–481. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Weth, C., Böhm, M., & Bunčić, D. (2020). Literacies in contact. Forms, functions, and practices. Written Language and Literacy, 23 (2), 133–153. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
World Medical Association (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki: ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA, 310 (20), 2191–2194. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zarić, J., & Nagler, T. (2021). Reading comprehension on word- and sentence-level can be predicted by orthographic knowledge for German children with poor reading proficiency. Reading and Writing, 341, 2031–2057. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue