Cover not available

In:Dialect on Air: Bahamian Creole in historical radio broadcasts
Diana Wengler
[Varieties of English Around the World G71] 2025
► pp. 183–196

Get fulltext from our e-platform
JBE logo with link
PDF logo with download linkDownload Book PDF
EPUB logo with download linkDownload Book EPUB
authorization required

References

Published online: 27 June 2025
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/veaw.g71.refs
Alim, H. Samy. 2002. Street-conscious copula variation in the hip hop nation. American Speech 77(3). 288–304. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Alleyne, Mervin C. 1980. Comparative Afro-American: An Historical- Comparative Study of English based Afro-American Dialects of the New World. Ann Arbor: Karoma.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2012. Negation in varieties of English. In Raymond Hickey (ed.), Areal Features of the Anglophone World (Topics in English Linguistics [TiEL]), 299–328. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter; De Gruyter Mouton. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Androutsopoulos, Jannis. 2016. Theorizing media, mediation and mediatization. In Nikolas Coupland (ed.), Sociolinguistics, 282–302. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Audacity Team. 2021. Audacity (R): Free Editor and Recorder. [URL]
Bailey, Beryl L. 1965. Toward a new perspective in Negro English dialectology. American Speech 40(3). 171–177. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
1968. Jamaican Creole Syntax: A Transformational Approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bailey, Guy, Natalie Maynor & Patricia Cukor-Avila (eds.). 1991a. The Emergence of Black English. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1991b. Introduction. In Guy Bailey, Natalie Maynor & Patricia Cukor-Avila (eds.), The Emergence of Black English, 1–22. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bailey, Guy & Eric R. Thomas. 1997. Some aspects of African American English phonology. In Guy Bailey, John Baugh, Salikoko S. Mufwene & John R. Rickford (eds.), African-American English, 85–109. London: Taylor and Francis.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bakir, Murtadha. 1986. Sex Differences in the approximation to Standard Arabic: A case study. Anthropological Linguistics 28(1). 3–9.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bates, Douglas, Martin Maechler, Ben Bolker & Steven Walker. 2021. Lme4: Linear Mixed-Effects Models Using Eigen and S4. [URL]
Baugh, John. 1979. A Re-examination of the Black English copula. Working Papers in Sociolinguistics 66. [URL]
Baumann, Richard (ed.). 1992. Folklore, Cultural Performances, and Popular Entertainments. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Beckford Wassink, Alicia. 2006. A geometric representation of spectral and temporal vowel features: Quantification of vowel overlap in three linguistic varieties. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 119(4). 2334–2350. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bell, Allan. 1984. Language style as audience design. Language in Society 13(2). 145–204. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bell, Allan & Andy Gibson. 2011. Staging language: an introduction to the sociolinguistics of performance. Journal of Sociolinguistics 15(5). 555–572. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bernaisch, Tobias, Stefan Th. Gries & Joybrato Mukherjee. 2014. The dative alternation in South Asian English(es): modelling predictors and predicting prototypes. English World-Wide 35(1). 7–31. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bethel, Nicolette. 1993. Bahamian kinship and the power of women. Cambridge: University of Cambridge; Department of Social Anthropology, MA thesis.
Bickerton, Derek. 1971. Inherent variability and variable rules. Foundations of Language 7(4). 457–492.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1973. The Nature of a creole continuum. Language 49(3). 640–669. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1979. Beginnings. In Kenneth C. Hill (ed.), The Genesis of Language, 1–22. Ann Arbor: Karoma.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1980. Decreolisation and the creole continuum. In A. Valdman & A. R. Highfield (eds.), Theoretical Orientations in Creole Studies, 109–127. New York, NY: Academic Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1981. Roots of language. Ann Arbor: Karoma.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1996. The origins of variations in Guyanese. In Gregory R. Guy, Crawford Feagin, Deborah Schiffrin & John Baugh (eds.), Towards a social science of languages, vol. 127, 311–328. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bilous, Frances R. & Robert M. Krauss. 1988. Dominance and accomodation in the conversational behaviours of same- and mixed gender dyads. Language & Communication 8(3/4). 183–194. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Blake, Renée. 2008. Bajan: Phonology. In Edgar W. Schneider (ed.), Varieties of English 2 (Varieties of English), 312–319. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Boersma, Paul & David Weenink. 2018. Praat: doing phonetics by computer. [URL]
Britain, David. 1997. Dialect contact and phonological reallocation: “Canadian Raising” in the English Fens. Language in Society 26(1). 15–46. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2002. Diffusion, levelling, simplification and reallocation in past tense BE in the English Fens. Journal of Sociolinguistics 6(1). 16–43. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Britain, David & Andrea Sudbury. 2002. There’s sheep and there’s penguins: convergence, “drift” and “slant” in New Zealand and Falkland Island English. In Mari C. Jones & Edith Esch (eds.), Language change (Contributions to the sociology of language), 209–204. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Carmichael, Katie. 2020. The rise of Canadian raising of /au/ in New Orleans English. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 147(1). 554. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chambers, J. K. 1973. Canadian raising. Canadian Journal of Linguistics 18(2). 113–135. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2000. Universal sources of the vernacular. Sociolinguistica 14(1). 11–15. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2004. Dynamic typology and vernacular universals. In Bernd Kortmann (ed.), Dialectology Meets Typology (Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs), 127–146. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chambers, Jack K. & Peter Trudgill. 1998. Dialectology. 2. ed., 12. print. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cheshire, Jenny. 1982. Variation in an English dialect: A sociolinguistic study. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cheshire, Jenny & Sue Fox. 2009. Was/were variation: A perspective from London. Language Variation and Change 21(1). 1–38. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Childs, Becky, Jeffrey Reaser & Walt Wolfram. 2003. Defining ethnic varieties in the Bahamas. In Michael Aceto & Jeffrey P. Williams (eds.), Contact Englishes of the Eastern Caribbean, 1–28. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Childs, Becky & Walt Wolfram. 2008. Bahamian English: Phonology. In Edgar W. Schneider (ed.), Varieties of English 2, 239–255. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Clarke, Sandra. 2008. Newfoundland English: morphology and syntax. In Edgar W. Schneider (ed.), Varieties of English 2, 492–509. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
College of The Bahamas. 1983. Bahamian Anthology. Oxford: Macmillan.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cooper, Vincent O. 1980. On the Notion of Decreolization and St. Kitts Personal Pronouns. In Richard R. Day (ed.), Issues in English Creoles, 39–50. Heidelberg: Groos. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Coupland, Nikolas. 2007. Style: Language Variation and Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2009. The Mediated Performance of Vernaculars. Journal of English Linguistics 37(3). 284–300. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(ed.). 2016a. Sociolinguistics: Theoretical debates. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2016b. Five Ms for sociolinguistic change. In Nikolas Coupland (ed.), Sociolinguistics, 433–454. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Craton, Michael & Gail Saunders. 1998. Islanders in the stream, volume 2: A history of the Bahamian people: From the ending of slavery to the twenty-first century. Athens, GA; London: University of Georgia Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Csardi, Gabor & Tamas Nepusz. 2006. The igraph software package for complex network research. InterJournal Complex Systems. 1695. [URL]
Dailey-O’Cain, Jennifer. 1997. Canadian raising in a midwestern U.S. city. Language Variation and Change 9(1). 107–120. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
DeCamp, David. 1971. Toward a Generative Analysis of a Post-creole Speech Continuum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Department of Statistics. 2014. Socio-economic report. Nassau. [URL]
. 2014. English in the Caribbean: Variation, Style and Standards in Jamaica and Trinidad. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Deuber, Dagmar & Valerie Youssef. 2012. Trinidadian Creole. In Bernd Kortmann & Kerstin Lunkenheimer (eds.), The Mouton World Atlas of Variation in English, 320–328. Berlin: De Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Devonish, Hubert & Otelemate G. Harry. 2008. Jamaican Creole and Jamaican English: Phonology. In Edgar W. Schneider (ed.), Varieties of English 2, 256–289. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Eckert, Penelope. 1989. Jocks and burnouts: Social categories and identity in the high school. New York: Teachers College Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2000. Linguistic variation as social practice: The linguistic construction of identity in Belten High. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2005. Variation, convention, and social meaning: Paper Presented at the Annual Meeting of the Linguistic Society of America. Oakland, CA. [URL]
. 2012. Three Waves of Variation Study: The Emergence of Meaning in the Study of Sociolinguistic Variation. Annual Review of Anthropology 41(1). 87–100. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2017. Age as a Sociolinguistic Variable. In Florian Coulmas (ed.), The Handbook of Sociolinguistics, 151–167. Wiley. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2018. Meaning and linguistic variation: The third wave in sociolinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Eiskovits, Edina. 1991. Variation in subject-verb agreement in inner Sydney English. In Jenny Cheshire (ed.), English around the world, 235–255. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ellis, Alexander J. 1889. On Early English Pronunciation: With Special Reference to Shakespeare and Chaucer. London: Trübner & Co.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Escure, Genviève. 2001. Belizean Creole: Gender, creole and the role of women in language change. In Marlis Hellinger & Hadumod Bußmann (eds.), Gender Across Languages: Vol. 1, 53–84. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Fabricius, Anne H., Dominic Watt & Daniel Ezra Johnson. 2009. A comparison of three speaker-intrinsic vowel formant frequency normalization algorithms for sociophonetics. Language Variation and Change 21(3). 413–435. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ferguson, Charles A. 1959. Diglossia. Word 15(2). 325–340. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Fraser, Bruce. 1972. Optional rules in grammar. In Roger W. Shuy (ed.), Report of The Twenty-Third Annual Round Table Meeting on Linguistics and Language Studies, 1–16. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Glinton-Meicholas, Patricia. 1994. An Evening in Guanima: A Treasury of Folktales From the Bahamas. Nassau: Guanima.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gordon, Derek. 1987. Class, Status and Social Mobility in Jamaica. University of the West Indies: Insitute of Socioeconomic Research.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gries, Stefan Th., Benedikt Heller & Nina Funke. 2021. The Role of Gender in Postcolonial Syntactic Choice-Making. In Tobias Bernaisch (ed.), Gender in World Englishes, 121–146. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gut, Ulrike. 2009. Introduction to English Phonetics and Phonology. Frankfurt a. M.: Peter Lang. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2011. Relative markers in spoken Standard Jamaican English. In Lars Hinrichs & Joseph T. Farquharson (eds.), Variation in the Caribbean, vol. 37, 79–104. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2012. Regional profile: The Caribbean. In Bernd Kortmann & Kerstin Lunkenheimer (eds.), The Mouton World Atlas of Variation in English, 704–733. Berlin: De Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2022. The epicentre model and American influence on Bahamian Englishes. World Englishes 41(3). 361–376. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hackert, Stephanie & Diana Wengler. 2019. Producing cultural authenticity: A soap opera as a source of historical creole data? BICLCE 19, Bamberg, Sep. 24–26.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2022. Recent Grammatical Change in Postcolonial Englishes: A Real-time Study of Genitive Variation in Caribbean and Indian Newswriting. Journal of English Linguistics 50(1). 3–38. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. Fc. Producing linguistic authenticity. a soap opera as a source of historical creole data?
Härkönen, Heidi. 2019. Introduction: Gender, Race, and Class in Caribbean Family Relations. Suomen Antropologi: Journal of the Finnish Anthropological Society 43(4). 36–40. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Harrell, Frank E., Jr. 2021. Hmisc: Harrell Miscellaneous. [URL]
Harrington, Jonathan, Sallyanne Palethorpe & Catherine Watson. 2000. Monophthongal vowel changes in Received Pronunciation: an acoustic analysis of the Queen’s Christmas broadcasts. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 30(1–2). 63–78. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hatz, Myriam. 2018. Der Einfluss von mtry auf Random F orests. Munich: LMU Munich; Institute of Statistics, M.Sc. Thesis. [URL]
Hay, Jennifer & Daniel Schreier. 2004. Reversing the trajectory of language change: Subject-verb agreement with be in New Zealand English. Language Variation and Change 16(03). 209–235. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hazen, Kirk. 2014. A new role for an ancient variable in Appalachia: Paradigm leveling and standardization in West Virginia. Language Variation and Change 26(1). 77–102. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Heller, Benedikt, Tobias Bernaisch & Stefan Th. Gries. 2017. Empirical perspectives on two potential epicenters: The genitive alternation in Asian Englishes. ICAME Journal 41(1). 111–144. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hillenbrand, J., L. A. Getty, M. J. Clark & K. Wheeler. 1995. Acoustic characteristics of American English vowels. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 97(5). 3099–3111. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hinrichs, Lars & Benedikt Szmrecsanyi. 2007. Recent changes in the function and frequency of Standard English genitive constructions: a multivariate analysis of tagged corpora. English Language and Linguistics 11(3). 437–474. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Holm, John A. 1984. Variability of the Copula in Black English and Its Creole Kin. American Speech 59(4). 291–309. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
1988. Pidgins and creoles: Theory and structure. Vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Holm, John A. & Alison W. Shilling. 1982. Dictionary of Bahamian English. Cold Spring, N.Y.: Lexik House Publishers.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hothorn, Torsten, Kurt Hornik, Carolin Strobl & Achim Zeileis. 2021. Party: A Laboratory for Recursive Partytioning. [URL]
Hothorn, Torsten, Kurt Hornik & Achim Zeileis. 2006. Unbiased Recursive Partitioning: A Conditional Inference Framework. Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics 15(3). 651–674. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Howe, Darin. 2005. Negation in African American Vernacular English. In Yōko Ieiri (ed.), Aspects of English negation, 173–203. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Irvine, G. Alison. 2004. A good command of the English language. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 19(1). 41–76. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2008. Contrast and convergence in Standard Jamaican English: The phonological architecture of the standard in an ideologically bidialectal community. World Englishes 27(1). 9–25. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Irvine-Sobers, G. Alison. 2018. The acrolect in Jamaica: The architecture of phonological variation. Language Science Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jansen, Lisa & Michael Westphal. 2017. Rihanna Works Her Multivocal Pop Persona: A Morpho-syntactic and Accent Analysis of Rihanna’s Singing Style. English Today 33(2). 46–55. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kautzsch, Alexander. 2000. Liberian Letters and Virginian Narratives: Negation Patterns in Two New Sources of Earlier African American English. American Speech 75(1). 34–53. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2002. The historical evolution of earlier African American English: An empirical comparison of early sources. Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2020. Earlier African American Vernacular English. In Bernd Kortmann, Kerstin Lunkenheimer & Katharina Ehret (eds.), The Electronic World Atlas of Varieties of English. [URL]
Kisler, Thomas, Uwe Reichel & Florian Schiel. 2017. Multilingual processing of speech via web services. Computer Speech & Language 45. 326–347. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kortmann, Bernd & Kerstin Lunkenheimer (eds.). 2012. The Mouton World Atlas of Variation in English. Berlin: De Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kortmann, Bernd, Kerstin Lunkenheimer & Katharina Ehret (eds.). 2020. The Electronic World Atlas of Varieties of English. [URL]
Kraus, Janina. 2017. A Sociophonetic Study of the Urban Bahamian Creole Vowel System. Munich: LMU Munich; Fakultät für Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaften, Dissertation.
Krug, Andreas. 2017. The a-vowels in acrolectal Bahamian English: A sociophonetic analysis. Munich: LMU Munich; Fakultät für Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaften, MA thesis.
Labov, William. 1963. The Social Motivation of a Sound Change. Word 19(3). 273–309. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1966. The social stratification of English in New York City. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1969. Contraction, Deletion, and Inherent Variability of the English Copula. Language 45(4). 715–762. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1990. The intersection of sex and social class in the course of linguistic change. Language Variation and Change 2(2). 205–254. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1994. Principles of linguistic change, Vol. 1: Internal factors. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2001. Principles of linguistic change, Vol 2: Social factors. Malden, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2006. The Social Stratification of English in New York City. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Labov, William, Sharon Ash & Charles Boberg. 2008. The atlas of North American English: Phonetics, phonology and sound change. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Labov, William, Paul Cohen, Clarence Robins & John Lewis. 1968. A study of non-standard English of Negro and Puerto Rican speakers in New York City: The use of language in the speech community. Vol. 2. Philadelphia: Columbia University.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Laliberté, Catherine. 2023. Urban Panamanian English. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Laliberté, Catherine, Melanie Keller & Diana Wengler. 2023. “So, I trucked out to the border, learned to say ain’t, came to find work”: The sociolinguistics of Firefly. Linguistics Vanguard 9(3). 275–286. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Laube, Alexander. Fc. Style and Variation in Bahamian English. LMU Munich, Dissertation.
. 2020. A corpus-based approach to style: Stylistic variation in Bahamian English. ICAME 41. Heidelberg, May 20–23.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2023. Variation in the imperfective in Bahamian English. World Englishes 42. 27–47. . [URL]
Laube, Alexander & Janina Rothmund. 2021. “Broken English,” “dialect” or “Bahamianese”? Language attitudes and identity in The Bahamas. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 36(2). 362–394. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Laube, Alexander & Diana Wengler. 2018. “All I is is heart”: A diachronic approach to copula variation in Bahamian Creole. Modelling the linguistic architecture of English: theories & methods. Vigo, Spain, May 24–25.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lausberg, Hedda & Han Sloetjes. 2009. Coding gestural behavior with the NEUROGES-ELAN system. Behavior Research Methods 41(3). 841–849. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lawlor, Anne. 1996. Bahamian English or Bahamian Creole? A sociohistorical investigation. The International Journal of Bahamian Studies 8. 1–12. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Le Page, R. B. & Andrée Tabouret-Keller. 1985. Acts of identity: Creole-based approaches to language and ethnicity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Leech, Geoffrey, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair & Nicholas Smith. 2009. Change in Contemporary English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lenth, Russell V. 2022. Emmeans: Estimated Marginal Means, Aka Least-Squares Means. [URL]
Leung, Glenda A. E. 2013. A Synchronic Sociophonetic Study of Monophthongs in Trinidadian English. Freiburg: University of Freiburg; Philologische Fakultät, Dissertation. [URL]
Levshina, Natalia. 2020. Conditional Inference Trees and Random Forests. In Magali Paquot & Stefan Thomas Gries (eds.), A practical handbook of corpus linguistics, 611–643. Cham: Springer. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lüdecke, Daniel. 2022. Ggeffects: Create Tidy Data Frames of Marginal Effects for Ggplot from Model Outputs. [URL]
Lüdecke, Daniel, Dominique Makowski, Mattan S. Ben-Shachar, Indrajeet Patil, Philip Waggoner & Brenton M. Wiernik. 2022. Performance: Assessment of Regression Models Performance. [URL]
Macaulay, Ronald K. S. 1977. Language, social class, and education. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mæhlum, Brit. 1996. Codeswitching in Hemnesberget — Myth or reality? Journal of Pragmatics 25(6). 749–761. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Malcolm, Ian G. 2020. Aboriginal English. In Bernd Kortmann, Kerstin Lunkenheimer & Katharina Ehret (eds.), The Electronic World Atlas of Varieties of English. [URL]
1996. Observations on variability in the verb phrase in Aboriginal English. Australian Journal of Linguistics 16(2). 145–165. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Meer, Philipp, Thorsten Brato & José Alejandro Matute Flores. 2021. Extending automatic vowel formant extraction to New Englishes. English World-Wide 42(1). 54–84. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Meer, Philipp & Mirjam Schmalz. 2023. Introduction: Englishes of the Caribbean. World Englishes 42(1). 2–8. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Meyerhoff, Miriam & James A. Walker. 2007. The persistence of variation in individual grammars: Copula absence in ’urban sojourners’ and their stay-at-home peers, Bequia (St Vincent and the Grenadines). Journal of Sociolinguistics 11(3). 346–366. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Michaelis, Susanne M., Philippe Maurer, Martin Haspelmath & Magnus Huber (eds.). 2013. The Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures Online. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. [URL]
Michaelis, Susanne M. & the APICS Consortium. 2013. Predicative noun phrases and predicative locative phrases. In Susanne M. Michaelis, Philippe Maurer, Martin Haspelmath & Magnus Huber (eds.), The Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures Online. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Migge, Bettina. 2020. Broadening creole studies: From grammar towards discourse. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 35(1). 160–177. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Minnis, Edward. 2019. Recording The Fergusons: p.c. (Ed.) Diana Wengler.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2010. At the Intersection of Tourism, National Identity and Bad Service: The Case Study of “The Fergusons of Farm Road”. Carleton/Ottawa: University of Carleton; Department of History, MA Thesis}.
Montgomery, Michael. 2001. British and Irish antecedents. In John Algeo (ed.), The Cambridge History of the English Language (Vol. 6), 86–153. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Moreton, Elliott & Eric R. Thomas. 2007. Origins of Canadian Raising in voiceless coda effects: A case study. In Jennifer Cole & José Ignacio Hualde (eds.), Laboratory phonology 9 (Phonology and phonetics), 37–64.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko. 1994. On decreolization: The case of Gullah. In Marcyliena Morgan (ed.), Language and the Social Construction of Identity in Creole Situations, 63–99. Los Angeles, CA: University of California at Los Angeles, Center for Afro-American Studies.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mufwene, Salikoko S. 1993. Scope of Negation and Focus in Gullah. In John R. Rickford & Suzanne Romaine (eds.), Creole genesis, attitudes and discourse (Creole Language Library), vol. 12, 95–116. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2000. Some Sociohistorical Inferences About the Development of African American English. In Shana Poplack (ed.), The English History of African American English, 233–263. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2001. African-American English. In John Algeo (ed.), The Cambridge History of the English Language (Vol. 6), 291–324. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mühleisen, Susanne. 2007. Exo-phonie und Heteroglossie: Kreol und Standard-Englisch in der karibischen Literatur. In Susan Arndt, Dirk Naguschewski & Robert Stockhammer (eds.), Exophonie, 195–208. Berlin: Kulturverl. Kadmos.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mühleisen, Susanne & Don E. Walicek. 2009. Language and gender in the Caribbean: An overview. Sargasso 2008/09(1). 15–30.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nevalainen, Terttu & Helena Raumolin-Brunberg. 2012. Historical Sociolinguistics: Origins, Motivations, and Paradigms. In Juan M. Hernández-Campoy & Juan C. Conde-Silvestre (eds.), The handbook of historical sociolinguistics, 22–40. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Orton, Harold, Stewart Sanderson & John Widdowson (eds.). 1978. The linguistic atlas of England. London: Croom Helm.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Patrick, Peter. 2012. Jamaican Creole. In Bernd Kortmann & Kerstin Lunkenheimer (eds.), The Mouton World Atlas of Variation in English, 222–236. Berlin: De Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pfaff, Carol. 1971. Historical and Structural Aspects of Sociolinguistic Variation: The Copula in Black English. Southwest Regional Educational Laboratory 37. [URL]
Picard, Marc. 1977. Canadian raising: the case against reordering. Canadian Journal of Linguistics 22(2). 145–155. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pietsch, Lukas. 2012. Verbal concord. In Raymond Hickey (ed.), Areal Features of the Anglophone World (Topics in English Linguistics), 355–378. Berlin/Boston: De Gruyter; De Gruyter Mouton. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Poplack, Shana & David Sankoff. 1987. The Philadelphia Story in the Spanish Caribbean. American Speech 62(4). 291–314. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Poplack, Shana & Sali Tagliamonte. 1991. African American English in the diaspora: Evidence from old-line Nova Scotians. Language Variation and Change 3(3). 301–339. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Poplack, Shana & Sali A. Tagliamonte. 2001. African American English in the diaspora. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Richards, Hazel. 2010. Preterite be: A new perspective? English World-Wide 31(1). 62–81. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rickford, John. 1991. Representativeness and Reliability of the Ex-Slave Materials, With Special Reference to Wallace Quarterman’s Recording and Transcript. In Guy Bailey, Natalie Maynor & Patricia Cukor-Avila (eds.), The Emergence of Black English, 191–212. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. 1980. How Does Doz Disappear? In Richard R. Day (ed.), Issues in English Creoles, 77–96. Heidelberg: Groos. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. 1987. Dimensions of a creole continuum: History, texts, & linguistic analysis of Guyanese Creole. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
1993. Variation in the Jamaican Creole Copula and its Relation to the Genesis of AAVE: New Data and Analysis. In John R. Rickford & Suzanne Romaine (eds.), Creole genesis, attitudes and discourse, 143–156. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
1996. Copula variability in Jamaican creole and African American vernacular English: A reanalysis of DeCamp’s texts. In Gregory R. Guy, Crawford Feagin, Deborah Schiffrin & John Baugh (eds.), Towards a social science of languages, 357–372. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
1998. The Creole Origins of African-American Vernacular English: Evidence from copula absence. In Salikoko S. Mufwene, John R. Rickford, Guy Bailey & John Baugh (eds.), African-American English: Structure, History, and Use, 154–200. London: Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rickford, John R., Arnetha Ball, Renee Blake, Raina Jackson & Nomi Martin. 1991. Rappin on the copula coffin: Theoretical and methodological issues in the analysis of copula variation in African-American Vernacular English. Language Variation and Change 3(1). 103–132. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. & Renee Blake. 1990. Copula Contraction and Absence in Barbadian English, Samaná English and Vernacular Black English. In Kira Hall, Jean-Pierre Koenig, Michael Meacham, Sodran Reinman & Laurel A. Sutts (eds.), Proceedings of the Sixteenth Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, vol. 16, 257–268. Berkeley: Berkeley Linguistics Society. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. & Suzanne Romaine (eds.). 1999. Creole Genesis, Attitudes and Discourse. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rohdenburg, Günter. 2003. Cognitive complexity and horror aequi as factors determining the use of interrogative clause linkers in English. In Günter Rohdenburg & Britta Mondorf (eds.), Determinants of grammatical variation in English (Topics in English linguistics), 205–250. Berlin; New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Romaine, Suzanne. 1980. Stylistic Variation and Evaluative Reactions To Speech: Problems in the Investigation of Linguistic Attitudes in Scotland. Language and Speech 23(3). 213–232. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sand, Andrea. 1999. Linguistic variation in Jamaica: A corpus-based study of radio and newspaper usage. Tübingen: Narr.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schiel, Florian. 1999. Automatic Phonetic Transcription of Non-Prompted Speech. In John J. Ohala, Yoko Hasegawa, Manjari Ohala, Daniel Granville & Ashlee C. Bailey (eds.), Proceedings of the 14th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences: ICPhS 99, San Francisco, 1 — 7 August 1999, 607–610. San Francisco: Linguistics Department, University of California. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schilling-Estes, Natalie. 2002. On the nature of isolated and post-isolated dialects: Innovation, variation and differentiation. Journal of Sociolinguistics 6(1). 64–85. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schilling-Estes, Natalie & Walt Wolfram. 1994. Convergent explanation and alternative regularization patterns: Were/weren’t leveling in a vernacular English variety. Language Variation and Change 6(3). 273–302. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schneider, Edgar W. 1989. American Earlier Black English: Morphological and syntactic variables. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schneider, Edgar W. 2007. Postcolonial English: Varieties around the world. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schreier, Daniel. 2003. Isolation and Language Change: Contemporary and Sociohistorical Evidence from Tristan Da Cunha English. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK. [URL].
. 2016. Super-leveling, fraying-out, internal restructuring: A century of present be concord in Tristan da Cunha English. Language Variation and Change 28(2). 203–224. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schreier, Daniel, Marianne Hundt & Edgar W. Schneider (eds.). 2020. The Cambridge handbook of World Englishes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Seymour, Chanti. 2009. Dis how it does go: The organisation of imperfective aspect in urban Bahamian Creole English. New York: University of New York, Dissertation.
Seymour, Kendra Chanti. 1995. The decreolisation of Bahamian English: A sociolinguistic study. Washington, DC: Georgetown University; Faculty of the Graduate School, MA Thesis.
Sharma, Devyani & John R. Rickford. 2009. AAVE/creole copula absence: A critique of the imperfect learning hypothesis. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 24(1). 53–90. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Shilling, Alison W. 1978. Some non-standard features of Bahamian Dialect syntax. University of Hawaii, Dissertation.
1980. Bahamian English — A Non-Continuum? In Richard R. Day (ed.), Issues in English Creoles. Heidelberg: Groos. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sidnell, Jack. 2012. Language and gender in the Caribbean. Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 27(1). 141–157. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Singler, John V. 1991. Copula variation in Liberian Settler English and American Black English. In Walter F. Edwards & Donald Winford (eds.), Verb phrase patterns in Black English and Creole, 129–164. Detroit: Wayne State University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Smith, Carlota S. 1997. The Parameter of Aspect. 2nd ed. Dordrecht: Springer. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Smith, Jennifer & Sali A. Tagliamonte. 1998. “We were all thegither … I think we was all thegither”: was regularization in Buckie English. World Englishes 17(2). 105–126. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
South, Andy. 2017. rnaturalearth: World Map Data from Natural Earth. [URL]
Spitulnik, Debra. 1996. The Social Circulation of Media Discourse and the Mediation of Communities. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 6(2).161–187. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Stamou, Anastasia G. 2014. A literature review on the mediation of sociolinguistic style in television and cinematic fiction: Sustaining the ideology of authenticity. Language and Literature 23(2). 118–140. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Storr, Juliette. 2000. Changes and challenges: A history of the development of broadcasting in the Commonwealth of the Bahamas. Athens, OH: Ohio University; Faculty of the College of Communication, Dissertation. [URL]
Strickler, Alyssa, Kelly Berkson & Stuart Davis. 2016. Canadian raising in Fort Wayne, Indiana. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 139(4). 2123. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Strobl, Carolin, Anne-Laure Boulesteix, Thomas Kneib, Thomas Augustin & Achim Zeileis. 2008. Conditional Variable Importance for Random Forests. BMC Bioinformatics 9(307). Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Strobl, Carolin, Anne-Laure Boulesteix, Achim Zeileis & Torsten Hothorn. 2007. Bias in Random Forest Variable Importance Measures: Illustrations, Sources and a Solution. BMC Bioinformatics 8(25). Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Strobl, Carolin, James Malley & Gerhard Tutz. 2009. An introduction to recursive partitioning: rationale, application, and characteristics of classification and regression trees, bagging, and random forests. Psychological Methods 14(4). 323–348. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Stuart-Smith, Jane, Gwilym Pryce, Claire Timmins & Barrie Gunter. 2013. Television can also be a factor in language change: Evidence from an urban dialect. Language 89(3). 501–536. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Stuka, Christine. Fc. The Barbadian English accent: phonological peculiarties and attitudes. Gießen: University of Gießen, Dissertation.
Suárez-Gómez, Cristina & Margarita M. Chamorro-Díaz. 2020. Copula deletion in San Andresan Creole. Miscelánea 61. 13–32. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Szmrecsanyi, Benedikt, Jason Grafmiller & Laura Rosseel. 2019. Variation-Based Distance and Similarity Modeling: A Case Study in World Englishes. Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence 2. 23. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tagliamonte, Sali. 1998. Was/were variation across the generations: View from the city of York. Language Variation and Change 10(2). 153–191. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tagliamonte, Sali A. 2006. Analysing sociolinguistic variation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2009. There was universals: Then there weren’t: A comparative sociolinguistic perspective on “default singulars”. In Markku Filppula, Juhani Klemola & Heli Paulasto (eds.), Vernacular universals and language contacts, 103–132. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2013. Comparative Sociolinguistics. In J. K. Chambers & Natalie Schilling-Estes (eds.), The Handbook of language variation and change, 128–156. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tagliamonte, Sali A. & R. Harald Baayen. 2012. Models, forests, and trees of York English: Was/were variation as a case study for statistical practice. Language Variation and Change 24(2). 135–178. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tagliamonte, Sali A. & Jennifer Smith. 1999. Analogical Leveling in Samaná English: The Case of Was and Were. Journal of English Linguistics 27(1). 8–26. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tagliamonte, Sali A. & Chris Roberts. 2005. So Weird; So Cool; So Innovative: The Use of Intensifiers in the Television Series “Friends”. American Speech 80(3). 280–300. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Thomas, Eric R. 2017. Analysis of the Ex-Slave Recordings. In Raymond Hickey (ed.), Listening to the Past, 350–374. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Thomas, Erik R. 2011. Sociophonetics: An introduction. Basingstoke, Hampshire; New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Thompson, Jeanne. 2018. The Fergusons of Farm Road: private mail. (Ed.) Diana Wengler.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Trousdale, Graeme. 2012. English dialects in the north of England. In Bernd Kortmann & Kerstin Lunkenheimer (eds.), The Mouton World Atlas of Variation in English, 70–77. Berlin: De Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Trudgill, Peter. 1974. The social differentiation of English in Norwich. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1986. Dialects in contact. London: Blackwell.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Vance, Timothy J. 1987. “Canadian Raising” in Some Dialects of the Northern United States. American Speech 62(3). 195–210. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Walker, James A. 2000. Rephrasing the copula: Contraction and zero in early African American English. In Shana Poplack (ed.), The English history of African American English, 35–72. Malden, MA: Blackwell.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2005. The ain’t constraint: Not-contraction in early African American English. Language Variation and Change 17(01). 1–17. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Walker, James A. & Miriam Meyerhoff. 2006. Zero copula in the Eastern Caribbean: Evidence from Bequia. American Speech 81(2). 146–163. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Walker, James A. & Jack Sidnell. 2011. Inherent variability and coexistent systems: Negation in Bequia. In Lars Hinrichs & Joseph T. Farquharson (eds.), Variation in the Caribbean, 39–56. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Weldon, T. L. 2007. Gullah negation: A variable analysis. American Speech 82(4). 341–366. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Weldon, Tracey. 1994. Variability in negation in African American Vernacular English. Language Variation and Change 6(3). 359–397. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Weldon, Tracey L. 2003. Copula variability in Gullah. Language Variation and Change 15(1). 37–72. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2008. Gullah: Phonology. In Edgar W. Schneider (ed.), Varieties of English 2 (Varieties of English), 192–207. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wells, John C. 1982. Accents of English 1: An introduction. Reprint. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Werner, Valentin (ed.). 2018. The language of pop culture. New York: Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2021. Text-linguistic analysis of performed language: revisiting and remodeling Koch and Oesterreicher. Linguistics 59(3). 541–575. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wickham, Hadley. 2016. ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis. New York: Springer. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2022. Stringr: Simple, Consistent Wrappers for Common String Operations. [URL]
Wickham, Hadley, Winston Chang, Lionel Henry, Thomas Lin Pedersen, Kohske Takahashi, Claus Wilke, Kara Woo, Hiroaki Yutani & Dewey Dunnington. 2023. Ggplot2: Create Elegant Data Visualisations Using the Grammar of Graphics. [URL]
Wilke, Claus O. 2020. Cowplot: Streamlined Plot Theme and Plot Annotations for Ggplot2. [URL]
Winford, Donald. 1983. A Sociolinguistic Analysis of Negation in Trinidadian English. In Lawrence D. Carrington (ed.), Studies in Caribbean Language, 203–210. St. Augustine: Society for Caribbean Linguistics.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1992. Another Look at the Copula in Black English and Caribbean Creoles. American Speech 67(1). 21–60. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Winkelmann, Raphael, Klaus Jaensch, Steve Cassidy & Jonathan Harrington. 2020. emuR: Main Package of the EMU Speech Database Management System.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt. 1969. A sociolinguistic description of Detroit Negro speech. Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1974. The relationship of White Southern speech to Vernacular Black English. Language 50(3). 498–527. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2020. Rural African American Vernacular English. In Bernd Kortmann, Kerstin Lunkenheimer & Katharina Ehret (eds.), The Electronic World Atlas of Varieties of English. [URL]
Wolfram, Walt & Dan Beckett. 2000. The role of the individual and group in earlier African American English. American Speech 75(1). 3–33. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt & Natalie Schilling-Estes. 2003. Parallel development and alternative restructuring. In David Britain & Jenny Cheshire (eds.), Social dialectology, 133–153. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt & Jason Sellers. 1999. Ethnolinguistic Marking of Past be in Lumbee Vernacular English. Journal of English Linguistics 27(2). 94–114. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Youssef, Valerie & Winford James. 2008. The creoles of Trinidad and Tobago: Phonology. In Edgar W. Schneider (ed.), Varieties of English 2, 320–338. Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
ZNS Bahamas. Aug 11, 2022. University of The Bahamas Honours Leadership Legacy of Dr. Rodney D. Smith. Nassau. [URL]
Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue