Cover not available

In:Urban Panamanian English
Catherine Laliberté
[Varieties of English Around the World G70] 2023
► pp. 195–208

Get fulltext from our e-platform
JBE logo with link
PDF logo with download linkDownload Book PDF
EPUB logo with download linkDownload Book EPUB
authorization required

References

Published online: 21 August 2023
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/veaw.g70.refs
Aceto, Michael. 1995. “Variation in a Secret Creole Language of Panama.” Language in Society 24 (4): 537–560. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1996. “Variation in the Panamanian West Indies: Variation in a Variety of Panamanian Creole English.” PhD diss., University of Texas at Austin.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1998. “A New Creole Future Tense Marker Emerges in the Panamanian West Indies.” American Speech 73 (1): 29–43. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2001. “The Linguistic Matrix of Panama with Special Focus on Anglophone Creoles.” Quaderni del Centro Interdipartimentale di Studi sull’America Indigena 2: 7–21.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2002a. “Ethnic Personal Names and Multiple Identities in Anglophone Caribbean Speech Communities in Latin America.” Language in Society 31 (4): 577–608. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2002b. “Going Back to the Beginning: Describing the (Nearly) Undocumented Anglophone Creoles of the Caribbean.” In Pidgin and Creole Linguistics in the Twenty-first Century, ed. by Glenn Gilbert, 93–120. New York: Peter Lang.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2003. “What Are Creole Languages? An Alternative Approach to the Anglophone Atlantic World with Special Emphasis on Barbudan Creole English.” In Contact English of the Eastern Caribbean, ed. by Michael Aceto, and Jeffrey P. Williams, 121–140. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Alfaro, Marcia. 1976. “Panamanian English Creole and Standard English: Some Grammatical Considerations.” In Primeras jornadas lingüísticas: el inglés criollo de Panamá, ed. by Pedro I. Cohen, 141–152. Panama: Editorial Universitaria.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Alfaro, Olmedo. 1925. El peligro antillano en la América Central: la defensa de la raza. Panama: Imprenta nacional.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Allsopp, Richard. 1996. Dictionary of Caribbean English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Andrews, George Reid. 1997. “Black Workers in the Export Years: Latin America, 1880–1930.” International Labor and Working-Class History 41, 7–29. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Asaka, Ikuko. 2017. Tropical Freedom: Climate, Settler Colonialism, and Black Exclusion in the Age of Emancipation. Durham: Duke University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Avram, Andrei A. 2014. Diagnostic Features of English-Lexifier Contact-Languages: Grenada Creole English. Linguistica Atlantica 33 (1): 2–18.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bartens, Angela. 2009. “A Comparison of the English-Based Creoles of Nicaragua and San Andrés and Old Providence.” Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 110 (3): 299–318.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bennett, Ira E. 1915. History of the Panama Canal. Washington, D.C.: Historical publishing company.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bickerton, Derek. 1975. Dynamics of a Creole System. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1981. Roots of Language. Ann Arbor: Karoma.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Biesanz, John. 1949. “Cultural and Economic Factors in Panamanian Race Relations.” American Sociological Review 14 (6): 772–779. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bishop, Hezekiah Adolfo. 1976. “Bidialectal Traits of West Indians in the Panama Canal Zone.” PhD diss., Columbia University.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bishop Vazquez, Belsis B. 1999. English in Panama: Creole-Speaking West Indian Students Learning and Teaching English. PhD Diss., Pennsylvania State University.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bloomfield, Leonard. 1933. Language. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bogetić, Ksenija. 2014. “Be Like and the Quotative System of Jamaican English: Linguistic Trajectories of Globalization and Localization.” English Today 30 (3): 5–12. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bourgois, Philippe I. 1985. “Ethnic Diversity on a Corporate Plantation: the United Fruit Company in Bocas del Toro, Panama and Talamanca, Costa Rica.” PhD diss., Stanford University.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Brewer, Jeutonne P. 1986. “Durative Marker or Hypercorrection? The Case of -S in the WPA Ex-Slave Narratives.” In Language Variety in the South, ed. by Michael B. Montgomery, and Guy Bailey, 131–148. Alabama: University of Alabama Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Britain, David, and Laura Rupp. 2005. “Subject-Verb Agreement in English Dialects: the East Anglian Subject Rule.” Paper presented at The International Conference on Language Variation in Europe (ICLaVE) 3, Amsterdam.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Brown Cox, Sophia Helena. 2000. “Past and Present of the English Language in the City of Colón and Its Future in the Atlantic Reverted Areas.” B.A. thesis, University of Panama.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Buchstaller, Isabelle, Karen P. Corrigan, Anders Homberg, Patrick Honeybone, and Warren Maguire. 2013. “T-to-R and the Northern Subject Rule: Questionnaire-Based Spatial, Social and Structural Linguistics.” English Language and Linguistics 17 (1): 85–128. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Buschfeld, Sarah, and Alexander Kautzsch. 2017. “Towards an Integrated Approach to Postcolonial and Non-Postcolonial Englishes.” World Englishes 36 (1): 104–126. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Carcamo Rodriguez, Kimberly. 2020. “Caribbean English in Letters: a Linguistic Analysis of a Historical Correspondence Corpus from Panama.” M.A. thesis, University of Munich.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cassidy, Frederic, and Robert LePage. 1967. Dictionary of Jamaican English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cedergren, Henrietta. 1973. “The Interplay of Social and Linguistic Factors in Panama.” PhD diss., Cornell University.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cesar, Gérard, director. 2006. Ces enfants perdus de Panama. RFO Guadeloupe. 52 min.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chambers, J. K. 2009. Sociolinguistic Theory, Revised Edition. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cheshire, Jenny. 1982. Variation in an English Dialect: a Sociolinguistic Study. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chomsky, Noam. 1991. Deterring Democracy. London: Verso.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Clarke, Sandra. 1997. “English Verbal -S Revisited: the Evidence from Newfoundland.” American Speech 72: 227–259. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1999. “The Search for Origins: Habitual Aspect and Newfoundland Vernacular English.” Journal of English Linguistics 27 (4): 328–340. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2015. “The Continuing Story of Verbal -S: Revisting the Northern Subject Rule as a Diagnostic of Historical Relationship.” In Linguistic Variation: Confronting Fact and Theory, ed. by Rena Torres Cacoullos, Nathalie Dion, and André Lapierre, 75–95. New York: Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cohen, Pedro I. 1976. “On the Pronunciation of the English Creole of Panama.” In Primeras jornadas lingüísticas: el inglés criollo de Panamá, ed. by Pedro I. Cohen, 127–140. Panama: Editorial Universitaria.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Colby, Jason M. 2011. The Business of Empire: United Fruit, Race and U.S. Expansion in Central America. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2015. “Progressive Empire: Race and Tropicality in United Fruit’s Central America.” In Making the Empire Work: Labor and United States Imperialism, ed. by Daniel E. Bender, and Jana K. Lipman, 289–311. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Collins, Peter. 2009. Modals and Quasi-Modals in English. Amsterdam: Rodopi. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Comrie, Bernard. 1976. Aspect: an Introduction to the Study of Verbal Aspect and Related Problems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Conniff, Michael L. 1985. Black Labor on a White Canal: Panama, 1904–1981. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
1995. “Afro-West Indians on the Central American Isthmus: the Case of Panama.” In Slavery and Beyond: the African Impact on Latin America and the Caribbean, ed. by Darién J. Davis, 147–172. Wilmington: Scholarly Resources.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Conniff, Michael L., and Gene E. Bigler. 2019. Modern Panama: from Occupation to Crossroads of the Americas. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Coriat, Adelita. 2018. “Solo 1% de los docentes del programa Panamá Bilingüe ha alcanzado la certificación.” La Estrella de Panamá, February 18, 2018. [URL].Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Corinealdi, Kaysha. 2011. “Redefining Home: West Indian Panamanians and Transnational Politics of Race, Citizenship, and Diaspora, 1928–1970.” PhD diss., Yale University.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2021. “Dr. Carlos E. Russell and the Origins of Black Solidarity Day.” Black Perspectives, September 14, 2021. [URL].Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2022. Panama in Black: Afro-Caribbean World Making in the Twentieth Century. Durham: Duke University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cukor-Avila, Patricia. 1997. “Change and Stability in the Use of Verbal -S over Time in AAVE.” In Englishes Around the World: Studies in Honour of Manfred Görlach vol I, ed. by Edgar W. Schneider, 295–306. Amsterdam: Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Curtis, Ariana A. 2012. “‘Becoming More and More Panamanian’: Contemporary Constructions of West Indian Identity in Urban Panama.” PhD diss., American University.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Daleszynska-Slater, Agata, Miriam Meyerhoff, and James A. Walker. 2019. “Order in the Creole Speech Community: Marking Past Temporal Reference in Bequia (St Vincent and the Grenadines).” Language Ecology 3 (1): 58–88. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
DeCamp, David. 1971. “Toward a Generative Analysis of a Post-Creole Speech Continuum.” In Pidginization and Creolization of Languages: Proceedings of a Conference Held at the University of the West Indies, ed. by Dell Hymes, 349–370. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Decker, Ken. 2013. “Belize Kriol.” In World Englishes Volume III: Central America, ed. by Tometro Hopkins, Kendall Decker, and John McKenny, 35–108. London: Bloomsbury.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2014. English in the Caribbean: Variation, Style and Standards in Jamaica and Trinidad. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Deuber, Dagmar, Eva Canan Hänsel, and Michael Westphal. 2020. “Quotative Be Like in Trinidadian English”. World Englishes 40: 436–458. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ding, Seong Lin, and Kim Leng Goh. 2020. “The Impact of Religion on Language Maintenance and Shift.” Language in Society 49 (1): 31–59. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Edwards, Jay. 1970. “Social Linguistics on San Andrés and Providencia Islands, Colombia.” PhD diss., Tulane University.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
ELAN. 2018. EUDICO Linguistic Annotator. Version 5.8. Nijmegen. [URL].
Erker, Daniel, and Ricardo Otheguy. 2021. “American Myths of Linguistic Assimilation: a Sociolinguistic Rebuttal.” Language in Society 50 (2): 197–233. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Espinoza C., Edgardo Amaurey. 1984. “A Brief Syntactic and Morphologic Comparison and Contrast of the English Dialect of Puerto Armuelles with the English Dialect of Colón.” B.A. thesis, University of Panama.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Fálquez, Manuel E. 1985. “A Description of Some Relevant Phonological Features of Chilibre Creole: Vowels and Consonants.” B.A. thesis, University of Panama.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Fasold, Ralph. 1972. Tense Marking in Black English. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Fishman, Joshua A. 2013. “Language Maintenance, Language Shift, and Reversing Language Shift.” In The Handbook of Bilingualism and Multilingualism, ed. by Tej K. Bhatia, and William C. Ritchie, 466–494. 2nd ed. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Flores-Villalobos, Joan. 2019. “‘Freak Letters’: Tracing Gender, Race, and Diaspora in the Panama Canal Archive.” Small Axe 23 (2): 34–56. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2021. “Gender, Race, and Migrant Labor in the ‘Domestic Frontier’ of the Panama Canal Zone.” International Labor and Working-Class History 99: 96–121. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Frajzyngier, Zygmunt. 1984. “On the Origin of Say and Se as Complementizers in Black English and English-Based Creoles.” American Speech 59 (3): 207–210. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Franck, Harry A. 1913. Zone Policeman 88: a Close Range Study of the Panama Canal and Its Workers. Classicly Edition.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Franklin, Wendel. 2019. A West Indian Story: an Exposé of the Culture, the Caribbean and the Canal of Panama. Self published.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Fuentes de Ho, Gloria. 1976. “Bilingualism and Its Many Facets.” In Primeras jornadas lingüísticas: el inglés criollo de Panamá, ed. by Pedro I. Cohen, 203–211. Panama: Editorial Universitaria.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gaël-Moutou, Marie-Françoise. 2011. “L’émigration des Guadeloupéens et des Martiniquais au Panamá et la contribution de leur descendance à l’essor de la nation de 1880 à 2008.” PhD diss., Université des Antilles et de la Guyane.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gal, Susan. 1979. Language Shift: Social Determinants of Linguistic Change in Bilingual Austria. New York: Academic Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Garcia de Barcenas, Diana, Luzmila Jaen, and Edita Tutiven de Mejia. 1984. “Estudio socio-lingüístico del grupo antillano de la comunidad de Nueva Providencia.” B.A. thesis, University of Panama.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Godfrey, Elizabeth, and Sali Tagliamonte. 1999. “Another Piece for the Verbal -S Story: Evidence from Devon in Southwest England.” Language Variation and Change 11: 87–121. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Graham, Ross. 1997. “Bay Islands English: Linguistic Contact and Convergence in the Western Caribbean.” PhD diss., University of Florida.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2013. “English in Honduras.” In World Englishes volume III: Central America, ed. by Tometro Hopkins, Kendall Decker, and John McKenny, 109–176. London: Bloomsbury.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Greene, Julie. 2009. The Canal Builders: Making America’s Empire at the Panama Canal. New York: Penguin.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2020. “Entangled in Empires: British Antillean Migrations in the World of the Panama Canal.” In Crossing Empires: Taking U.S. History into Transimperial Terrain, ed. by Kristin L. Hoganson, and Jay Sexton, 222–240. Durham: Duke University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Grenoble, Lenore A. 2013. “Language Revitalization.” In The Oxford Handbook of Sociolinguistics, ed. by Robert Bayley, Richard Cameron, and Ceil Lucas, 792–811. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gries, Stefan Th. 2020. “On Classification Trees and Random Forests in Corpus Linguistics: Some Words of Caution and Suggestions for Improvement.” Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory 16 (3): 617–647. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Guerrón Montero, Carla. 2002. “‘Like an Alien in We Own Land’: International Tourism, Gender and Identity in Afro-Antillean Panama.” PhD diss., University of Oregon.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2020. From Temporary Migrants to Permanent Attractions: Tourism, Cultural Heritage, and Afro-Antillean Identities in Panama. Tuscaloosa: The University of Alabama Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gumperz, John Joseph. 1971. Language in Social Groups. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Guy, Gregory R. 2011. “Language, Social Class, and Status.” In The Cambridge Handbook of Sociolinguistics, ed. by Rajend Mesthrie, 159–185. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2015. “Pseudotitles in Bahamian English: a Case of Americanization?” Journal of English Linguistics 43 (2): 143–67. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2019. “Memoirs from Central America: a Linguistic Analysis of Personal Recollections of West Indian Laborers in the Construction of the Panama Canal.” In Keeping in Touch: Emigrant Letters across the English-Speaking World, ed. by Raymond Hickey, 261–286. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hackert, Stephanie, and Alexander Laube. 2018. “You Ain’t Got Principle, You Ain’t Got Nothing: Verbal Negation in Bahamian Creole.” English World-Wide 39 (3): 278–308. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hackert, Stephanie, and Diana Wengler. 2022. “Recent Grammatical Change in Postcolonial Englishes: a Real-Time Study of Genitive Variation in Caribbean and Indian Newswriting.” Journal of English Linguistics 50 (1): 3–38. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hänsel, Eva Canan. 2021. “Standard Language Ideology Revisited: the Case of Newscasters in St Vincent and the Grenadines.” In Ideology in Postcolonial Texts and Contexts, ed. by Katja Sarkowsky, and Mark U. Stein, 86–105. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hänsel, Eva Canan, Michael Westphal, Philipp Meer, and Dagmar Deuber. 2022. “Context Matters: Grenadian Students’ Attitudes Towards Newscasters’ and Teachers’ Accents.” Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 37 (1): 16–52. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Harpelle, Ronald. 2010. “White Zones: American Enclave Communities of Central America.” In Blacks and Blackness in Central America: Between Race and Place, ed. by Lowell Gudmundson, and Justin Wolfe, 307–333. Durham: Duke University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Harrell Jr., Frank E., and Charles Dupont. 2021. Hmisc: Harrell Miscellaneous. Version 5.5-0. [URL].Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Heller, Benedikt, Tobias Bernaisch, and Stefan Th. Gries. 2017. “Empirical Perspectives on Two Potential Epicenters: the Genitive Alternation in Asian Englishes.” ICAME Journal 41 (1): 111–144. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Herzfeld, Anita. 1983a. “Limon Creole and Panamanian Creole: Comparison and Contrast.” In Studies in Caribbean Language, ed. by Lawrence D. Carrington, 23–37. St. Augustine, Trinidad: Julius Groos Verlag.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1983b. “The Creoles of Costa Rica and Panama.” In Central American English, ed. by John Holm, 131–156. Heidelberg: Julius Groos Verlag. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hickey, Raymond. 2005. “English Dialect Input to the Caribbean.” In Legacies of Colonial English: Studies in Transported Dialects, ed. by Raymond Hickey, 326–359. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Holm, John. 1978. “The Creole English of Nicaragua’s Miskito Coast: Its Sociolinguistic History and a Comparative Study of Its Lexicon and Syntax.” PhD diss., University of London, University College.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1989. Pidgins and Creoles Vol.2: Reference Survey. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ihalainen, Ossi. 1994. “The Dialects of England Since 1776.” In The Cambridge History of the English Language, Volume 5: English Language in Britain and Overseas, Origins and Development, ed. by Robert Burchfield, 197–274. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Isthmian Historical Society. 1964. Competition for the Best True Stories of Life and Work on the Isthmus of Panama During the Construction of the Panama Canal. Panama.
James, Winford, and Valerie Youssef. 2004. “The Creoles of Trinidad and Tobago: Morphology and Syntax.” In A Handbook of Varieties of English, Vol. II, ed. by Bernd Kortmann, 454–481. Berlin: De Gruyter.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jantos, Susanne. 2010. “Agreement in Educated Jamaican English: a Corpus-Based Study of Spoken Usage in ICE-Jamaica.” In Syntactic Variation and Genre, ed. by Heidrun Dorgeloh, and Anja Wanner, 305–332. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jekyll, Walter. 1907. Jamaican Song and Story: Annancy Stories, Digging Sings, Ring Tunes, and Dancing Tunes. London: David Nutt. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jones Alphonse, Adelaida. 1976. “Same but Different: a Phonological Comparison of Black English and Panamanian English Creole.” In Primeras jornadas lingüísticas: el inglés criollo de Panamá, ed. by Pedro I. Cohen, 190–201. Panama: Editorial Universitaria.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jørgensen, Annette Myre, and Anna-Brita Stenström. 2009. “Dos marcadores pragmáticos contrastados en el lenguaje juvenil: el inglés like y el español como.” Español Actual 92: 103–121.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jos, Joseph. 2004. Guadeloupéens et Martiniquais au Canal de Panamá: histoire d’une émigration. Paris: L’Harmattan.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Justavino, Nilsa Esther. 1975. “West Indian English Dialects in Panama: a Historical, Social, and Linguistic Approach.” B.A. thesis, University of Panama.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
King de Ward, Rosalía Angelica. 1985. “An Introduction to the Morphology and Syntax of Rio Abajo English Creole.” B.A. thesis, University of Panama.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kortmann, Bernd, and Kerstin Lunkenheimer. 2013. The Mouton World Atlas of Variation in English. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Koskinen, Arja. 2013. “English-Lexifier Creole in Nicaragua.” In World Englishes Volume III: Central America, ed. by Tometro Hopkins, Kendall Decker, and John McKenny, 177–204. London: Bloomsbury.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kraus, Janina. 2017. “A Sociophonetic Study of the Urban Bahamian Creole Vowel System.” PhD diss., University of Munich.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
LaBoda, Ashley. 2015. “A Variationist Approach to Code-Switching and Lexical Borrowing: the Case of Limonese-Spanish Bilinguals in Puerto Limón, Costa Rica.” PhD diss., State University of New York.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Labov, William. 1972. Sociolinguistic Patterns. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1987. “Are Black and White Vernaculars Diverging? Papers from the NWAVE XIV Panel Discussion.” American Speech 62 (1): 5–12.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2001. “The Anatomy of Style-Shifting.” In Style and Sociolinguistic Variation, ed. by Penelope Eckert, and John R. Rickford, 85–108. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Labov, William, Paul Cohen, Clarence Robins, and John Lewis. 1968. A Study of the Non-Standard English of Negro and Puerto Rican Speakers in New York City. Co-Operative Research Report 3288, Vol. I. Philadelphia: U.S. Regional Survey.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lamy, Delano Sydney. 2012. “A Variationist Account of Voice Onset Time Among Bilingual West Indians in Panama.” PhD diss., University of Florida.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2016. “A Variationist Account of Voice Onset Time (VOT) Among Bilingual West Indians in Panama.” Studies in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics 9 (1): 113–141. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lasso, Marixa. 2007. “Race and Ethnicity in the Formation of Panamanian National Identity: Panamanian Discrimination Against Chinese and West Indians in the Thirties.” Revista panameña de política 4: 61–92.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2013. “Nationalism and Immigrant Labor in a Tropical Enclave: the West Indians of Colón City, 1850-1936.” Citizenship Studies 17 (5): 551–565. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2019. Erased: the Untold Story of the Panama Canal. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Laube, Alexander. fc. “Style and Variation in Bahamian English.” PhD diss., University of Munich.
Laube, Alexander, and Janina Rothmund. 2021. “‘Broken English’, ‘dialect’ or ‘Bahamianese’? Language Attitudes and Identity in The Bahamas.” Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 36: 362–394. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Leech, Geoffrey N. 2004. Meaning and the English Verb. 3rd ed. London: Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
LePage, R. B., and Andrée Tabouret-Keller. 1985. Acts of Identity: Creole-Based Approaches to Language and Ethnicity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lieffers, Caroline. 2020. “Artificial Limbs on the Panama Canal.” In Making Disability Modern, ed. by Bess Williamson, and Elizabeth Guffey (eds.), 61–75. London: Bloomsbury. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
López Alonzo, Karen. 2021. “Samples of Linguistic Repertoires, Language Shift Patterns and Perceptions of Spanish in Bluefields, Nicaragua.” In When Creole and Spanish Collide: Language and Cultural Contact in the Caribbean, ed. by Glenda-Alicia Leung, and Miki Loschky, 277–299. Leiden: Brill.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lowe de Goodin, Melva. 2014. People of African Ancestry in Panama, 1501–2012. Translated by Melva Lowe de Goodin. Panama.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lowe Ocran, Melva. 1976. “El idioma inglés y la integración social de los panameños de origen afroantillano al carácter nacional panameño”. Revista Nacional de Cultura 5: 22–43.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Malkani, Neelam. 2019. A Comprehensive Guide on English. Agra: Oswal.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mason, Norma. 1979. “Common Problems in the Use of Prepositions by Native Speakers of Spanish and Speakers of Creole English.” B.A. thesis, University of Panama.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Maurer, Philippe and the APiCS Consortium. 2013. “Uses of the Habitual marker.” In The Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures, ed. by Susanne Maria Michaelis, Philippe Maurer, Martin Haspelmath, and Magnus Huber. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
McCullough, David. 1977. The Path Between the Seas: the Creation of the Panama Canal 1870–1914. New York: Simon & Schuster.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
McLean Araúz, Mauricio Augusto. 2016. Xenofobia en las cuatro primeras décadas de la República de Panamá. Panama: Editorial Universitaria Carlos Manuel Gasteazoro.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Meer, Philipp, and Robert Fuchs. 2022. “The Trini Sing-Song: Sociophonetic Variation in Trinidadian English Prosody and Differences to Other Varieties.” Language and Speech 65 (4): 923–957. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Meer, Philipp, Robert Fuchs, Dagmar Deuber, Véronique Lacoste, and Eva Canan Hänsel. 2022. “Prosodic Variation in the Caribbean: Comparing Pitch Patterns in English Language Data from Dominica, Grenada, and Trinidad.” World Englishes 42 (1): 48–72. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mendoza, Blanca. 2019. “Panamá Bilingüe, un programa de $279 millones sin resultados claros.” Metro Libre, September 20, 2019. [URL].Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Michaelis, Susanne, Philippe Maurer, Martin Haspelmath, and Magnus Huber. 2013. The Survey of Pidgin and Creole Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Milroy, Lesley. 1980. Language and Social Networks. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Minow, Verena. 2010. Variation in the Grammar of Black South African English. Frankfurt: Peter Lang.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Modestin, Yvette. 2012. “The Whispers of the Ancestors: Development of a Black, Proud, Panamanian Voice.” In Women Warriors of the Afro-Latina Diaspora, ed. by Marta Moreno Vega, Marinieves Alba, and Yvette Modestin, 123–139. Houston: Arte Público Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Modestin, Yvette, and Tianna S. Paschel. 2016. “Every Day is Black Heritage Month: a Conversation Between Yvette Modestin and Tianna S. Paschel.” In Afro-Latins in movement, ed. by Petra R. Rivera-Rideau, Jennifer A. Jones, and Tianna S. Paschel, 269–288. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Myers-Scotton, Carol. 2002. Contact Linguistics: Bilingual Encounters and Grammatical Outcomes. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Myles Spragg, Marva. 1973. “Origin and Nature of the English Dialect of Colón and Its Implications for the Teaching of Standard English.” B.A. thesis, University of Panama.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1976. “Nature of the English Dialect of Colón.” In Primeras jornadas lingüísticas: el inglés criollo de Panamá, ed. by Pedro I. Cohen, 153–188. Panama: Editorial Universitaria.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Newton, Velma. 1995 [1984]. “Los hombres del ‘silver roll’: migración antillana a Panamá 1850-1914.” Translated by Irma Ritter. Panama: Sociedad de Amigos del Museo Afroantillano de Panamá.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nwankwo, Ifeoma Kiddoe. 2015. “Bilingualism, Blackness, and Belonging: the Racial and Generational Politics of Linguistic Transnationalism in Panama.” In Black Writing, Culture, and the State in Latin America, ed. by Jerome Branche, 171–192. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Parker, Matthew. 2007. Hell’s Gorge: the Battle to Build the Panama Canal. London: Arrow books.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2004. “The Speech Community.” In The Handbook of Variation and Change, ed. by J. K. Chambers, Peter Trudgill, and Natalie Schilling-Estes, 573–597. 2nd ed. Malden: Blackwell. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pierre, Esteban. 1987. “Difficulties Most Colón Creole English Speakers Might Encounter when Learning Standard English.” B.A. thesis, University of Panama.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pietsch, Lukas. 2005. “‘Some Do and Some Doesn’t’: Verbal Concord Variation in the North of the British Isles.” In A Comparative Grammar of British English Dialects: Agreement, Gender, Relative Clauses, ed. by Bernd Kortmann, Tanja Herrmann, Lukas Pietsch, and Susanne Wagner, 125–210. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pizzurno Gelós, Patricia. 2011. Memorias e imaginarios de identidad y raza en Panamá, siglos XIX y XX. Panama City: Editorial M. Arosemena.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pope, Nicola. 2019. “Improving English for Panama’s First Bilingual Generation.” Pearson, June 27, 2019. [URL].Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Poplack, Shana, and Stephen Levey. 2010. “Contact-Induced Grammatical Change.” In Language and Space: an International Handbook of Linguistic Variation, Volume 1: Theories and Methods, ed. by Peter Auer, and Jürgen Erich Schmidt, 391–418. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Poplack, Shana, and Marjory Meechan. 1998. “How Languages Fit Together in Codemixing.” International Journal of Bilingualism 2 (2): 127–138. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Poplack, Shana, and Sali Tagliamonte. 1989. “There’s No Tense Like the Present: Verbal -S Inflection in Early Black English.” Language Variation and Change 1: 47–84. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1991. “African American English in the Diaspora: the Case of Old-Line Nova Scotians.” Language Variation and Change 3: 301–339. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2001. African American English in the Diaspora. Malden: Blackwell.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2004. “Back to the Present: Verbal -S in the (African American) English Diaspora.” In Legacies of Colonial English: Studies in Transported Dialects, ed. by Raymond Hickey, 203–223. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Preston, Dennis R. 1985. “The Li’l Abner Syndrome: Written Representations of Speech.” American Speech 60 (4): 328–336. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Putnam, Lara. 2013. Radical Moves: Caribbean Migrants and the Politics of Race in the Jazz Era. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Quirk, Randolph, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. 1985. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
R Core Team. 2020. R: a Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Version 3.6.3. Vienna. [URL].
Reaser, Jeffrey. 2010. “Bahamian English.” In The Lesser-Known Varieties of English, ed. by Daniel Schreier, Peter Trudgill, Edgar W. Schneider, and Jeffrey P. Williams, 158–170. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Reaser, Jeffrey, and Benjamin Torbert. 2004. “Bahamian English: Morphology and Syntax.” In A Handbook of Varieties of English, Vol. II, ed. by Bernd Kortmann, 391–406. Berlin: De Gruyter.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Reid, Heidi. 2019. “Tense, Aspect and Modality in Bastimentos Creole English.” PhD diss., University of Manchester.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rickford, John R. 1986. “The Need for New Approaches to Social Class Analysis in Sociolinguistics.” Language & Communication 6 (3): 215–221. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
1992. “The Creole Residue in Barbados.” In Old English and New: Studies in Honor of Frederic G. Cassidy, ed. by Joan H. Hall, Nick Doane, and Dick Ringler, 183–201. New York: Garland.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ritter, Irma. 1988. “Bilingualism: a Lost Opportunity.” B.A. thesis, University of Panama.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rodríguez, Emigdio O. 1976. “Past, Present, and Future of the English Creole in Panama.” In Primeras jornadas lingüísticas: el inglés criollo de Panamá, ed. by Pedro I. Cohen, 111–126. Panama: Editorial Universitaria.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rojas, Keila E. L. 2020. “Melva Lowe de Goodin: ‘Fenotipo de los negros ha llevado a los gobernantes a condenarlos a la clase social más baja’.” La Estrella de Panamá, May 26, 2020. [URL].Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Romaine, Suzanne. 1982. Socio-Historical Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1989. Bilingualism. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Romaña, Kirk K. 1996. “Has the Use of the English Language Declined Within the Afro-Antillean Community in Panama?” B.A. thesis, University of Panama.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rothman, Jason, and Jeanine Treffers-Daller. 2014. “A Prolegomenon to the Construct of the Native Speaker: Heritage Speaker Bilinguals are Natives Too!” Applied Linguistics 35 (1): 93–98. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rupp, Laura, and David Britain. 2019. Linguistic Perspectives on a Variable English Morpheme: Let’s Talk about -S. London: Palgrave Macmillan. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Russell, Carlos E. 2003. The Last Buffalo: Are Panamanians of Caribbean Ancestry an Endangered Species? Charlotte, NC: Conquering Books.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sarfati, Nathalie, Pierre Lacombe, and Massimo Bulgarelli. 2019. “Des Antillais fidèles à leurs racines.” France TV, outre mer la première, January 20, 2019. [URL]Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schilling, Natalie. 2013. Sociolinguistic Fieldwork. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schmid, Hans-Jörg. 2020. The Dynamics of the Linguistic System: Usage, Conventionalization, and Entrenchment. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schneider, Edgar W. 1983. “The Origin of the Verbal -S in Black English.” American Speech 58 (2): 99–113. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
1989. American Earlier Black English. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schneider, Edgar W., and Michael B. Montgomery. 2001. “On the Trail of Early Nonstandard Grammar: an Electronic Corpus of Southern U.S. Antebellum Overseers’ Letters.” American Speech 76 (4): 388–410. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schreier, Daniel. 2003a. “An East Anglian in the South Atlantic? Interpreting Morphosyntactic Resemblances in Terms of Direct Input, Parallel Development, and Linguistic Contact.” In Social Dialectology: in Honour of Peter Trudgill, ed. by David Britain, and Jenny Cheshire, 81–96. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2003b. Isolation and Language Change: Contemporary and Sociohistorical Evidence from Tristan da Cunha English. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2016. “Super-Leveling, Fraying-Out, Internal Restructuring: a Century of Present Be Concord in Tristan da Cunha English.” Language Variation and Change 28: 203–224. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sealy, Inés V. 1999. Reminiscences – recopilación, Volumen I. Panama: Editorial Universitaria Carlos Manuel Gasteazoro.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Senior, Olive. 2014. Dying to Better Themselves: West Indians and the Building of the Panama Canal. Kingston: The University of the West Indies Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Seymour, Chanti. 2009. “Dis How It Does Go: the Organization of Imperfective Aspect in Urban Bahamian Creole English.” PhD diss., New York University.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sigler, Thomas J. 2014. “Monaco with Bananas, a Tropical Manhattan, or a Singapore for Central America? Explaining Rapid Urban Growth in Panama City, Panama.” Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography 35: 261–278. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Singler, John Victor. 1997. “On the Genesis, Evolution, and Diversity of African American English: Evidence from Verbal -S in the Liberian Settler English of Sinoe.” Paper presented at the Society for Pidgin and Creole Languages (SPCL) conference, London.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Small, Alicia. 1990. “The Use of Creole English in Colon Is Disappearing.” B.A. thesis, University of Panama.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Smolicz, J. J. 1980. “Language as a Core Value of Culture.” RELC Journal 11 (1): 1–13. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Snow, Peter. 2000a. “Language Variation in Caribbean Creole/Non-Lexifier Contact Situations: Continua or Diglossia?” Texas Linguistic Forum 44 (1): 148–162.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2000b. “The Case for Diglossia on the Panamanian Island of Bastimentos.” Journal of Pidgin and Creole Languages 15 (1): 165–169. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2001. “A Discrete Co-Systems Approach to Language Variation on the Panamanian Island of Bastimentos.” University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics 7 (3): 279–293.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2004a. “Tourism and Small-Language Persistence in a Panamanian Creole Village.” International Journal of the Sociology of Language 166: 113–128. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2004b. “What Happen: Language Socialization and Language Persistence in a Panamanian Creole Village.” PhD diss., University of California, Los Angeles. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2007. “Vernacular Shift: Language and the Built Environment in Bastimentos, Panama.” Identities 14 (1–2): 161–182. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2013. “English in Panama.” In World Englishes Volume III: Central America, ed. by Tometro Hopkins, Kendall Decker, and John McKenny, 251–276. London: Bloomsbury.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Spalding, Ana K. 2020. “Towards a Political Ecology of Lifestyle Migration: Local Perspectives on Socio-Ecological Change in Bocas del Toro, Panama.” Area 52: 539–546. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Speer, Susan A., and Elizabeth Stokoe. 2014. “Ethics in Action: Consent-Gaining Interactions and Implications for Research Practice.” British Journal of Social Psychology 53: 54–73. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Spence Sharpe, Marva. 1997. “A Case Study of Language Shift in Progress in Port Limon, Costa Rica.” Revista de filología y lingüística de la Universidad de Costa Rica 23 (1): 225–234. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Stanford, James N. 2016. “A Call for More Diverse Sources of Data: Variationist Approaches in Non-English Contexts.” Journal of Sociolinguistics 20 (4): 525–541. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Stein, Dieter. 1987. “At the Crossroads of Philology, Linguistics and Semiotics: Notes on the Replacement of TH by S in the Third Person Singular in English.” English Studies 5: 406–431. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1990. The Semantics of Syntactic Change: Aspects of the Evolution of Do in English. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Stephenson Watson, Sonja. 2009. “Are Panamanians of Caribbean Ancestry an Endangered Species? Critical Literary Debates on Panamanian Blackness in the Works of Carlos Wilson, Gerardo Maloney, and Carlos Russell.” Latin American and Caribbean Ethnic Studies 4 (3): 231–254. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2014. The Politics of Race in Panama: Afro-Hispanic and West Indian Literary Discourses of Contention. Gainesville: University of Florida. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Strobl, Carolin, Anne-Laure Boulesteix, Achim Zeileis, and Torsten Hothorn. 2007. “Bias in Random Forest Variable Importance Measures: Illustrations, Sources and a Solution.” BMC Bioinformatics 8 (25). Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Strobl, Carolin, Anne-Laure Boulesteix, Thomas Kneib, Thomas Augustin, and Achim Zeileis. 2008. “Conditional Variable Importance for Random Forests.” BMC Bioinformatics 9 (307). Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tagliamonte, Sali. 2009. Analysing Sociolinguistic Variation. 3rd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tagliamonte, Sali, and R. Harald Baayen. 2012. “Models, Forests, and Trees of York English: Was/Were Variation as a Case Study for Statistical Practice.” Language Variation and Change 24: 135–178. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tagliamonte, Sali, and Jennifer Smith. 1999. “Analogical Leveling in Samaná English.” Journal of English Linguistics 27 (1): 8–26. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Testa, Marlene. 2018. “‘Este es un país que oculta su población negra, la oculta…’” La Estrella de Panamá, May 31, 2018. [URL].Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Thomas Brereton, Leticia. 1992. “An Exploration of Panamanian Creole English: Some Syntactic, Lexical, and Sociolinguistic Features”. PhD diss., New York University.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1993. Dictionary of Panamanian English. Brooklyn.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Treffers-Daller, Jeanine. 2016. “Language Dominance: the Construct, Its Measurement, and Operationalization.” In Language Dominance in Bilinguals: Issues of Measurement and Operationalization, ed. by Carmen Silva-Corvalán, and Jeanine Treffers-Daller, 235–265. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Trudgill, Peter. 2021. “The Reign of Spain Is Far from Plain.” The New European, December 16, 2021. [URL].Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Urieta Moreno, Yaissel. 2018. “Se reafirma el fracaso del programa Panamá Bilingüe en todo el país.” Panamá América, June 30, 2018. [URL].Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
van Herk, Gerard, and James A. Walker. 2005. “S Marks the Spot? Regional Variation and Early African American Correspondence.” Language Variation and Change 17: 113–131. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
van Rooy, Bertus. 2011. “A Principled Distinction Between Error and Conventionalized Innovation in African Englishes.” In Exploring Second-Language Varieties of English and Learner Englishes: Bridging a Paradigm Gap, ed. by Joybrato Mukherjee, and Marianne Hundt, 189–207. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Villarreal, Y., M. de los A. Castillo, Castillo, A. Muñoz, J. Toral, and E. Flores. 2003. “Nivel de ruido en la Ciudad de Panamá.” Tecnociencia 5 (2): 97–108.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Walker, James A., and Miriam Meyerhoff. 2006. “Zero Copula in the Eastern Caribbean: Evidence from Bequia.” American Speech 81 (2): 146–163. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2013. “Studies of the Community and the Individual.” In The Oxford Handbook of Sociolinguistics, ed. by Robert Bayley, Richard Cameron, and Ceil Lucas, 175–194. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Walker, James A., and Miriam Meyerhofff. 2015. “Bequia English.” In Further Studies in the Lesser-Known Varieties of English, ed. by Jeffrey P. Williams, Edgar W. Schneider, Peter Trudgill, and Daniel Schreier, 128–143. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Weldon, Tracey L. 2003. “Copula Variability in Gullah.” Language Variation and Change 15: 37–72. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wengler, Diana. fc. “Dialect on Air: Grammatical and Phonological Variation in a Bahamian Radio Show from the Early 1970s.” PhD diss., University of Munich.
Westerman, George W. 1961. “Historical Notes on West Indians on the Isthmus of Panama.” Phylon 22 (4): 340–350. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
1980. Los inmigrantes antillanos en Panamá. Panamá: Impresora de la Nación.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wickham, Hadley. 2011. “The Split-Apply-Combine Strategy for Data Analysis.” Journal of Statistical Software 40 (1): 1–29. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2016. Ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis. New York: Springer-Verlag. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Williams, Jeffrey P. 2010. “Euro-Caribbean English Varieties.” In The Lesser-Known Varieties of English, ed. by Daniel Schreier, Peter Trudgill, Edgar W. Schneider, and Jeffrey P. Williams, 136–157. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wilson, Guyanne, Michael Wesphal, Johanna Hartmann, and Dagmar Deuber. 2017. “The Use of Question Tags in Different Text Types of Trinidadian English.” World Englishes 36 (1): 726–743. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Winer, Lise. 2009. Dictionary of the English/Creole of Trinidad & Tobago, on Historical Principles. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Winford, Donald. 1992. “Another Look at the Copula in Black English and Caribbean Creoles.” American Speech 67: 21–60. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2018. “Creole Tense–Mood–Aspect Systems.” Annual Review of Linguistics 4: 193–212. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Winkler, Elizabeth Grace. 1998. “Limonese Creole: a Case of Contact-Induced Language Change.” PhD diss., Indiana University, Bloomington.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2008. “A Gender-Based Analysis of Discourse Markers in Limonese Creole.” Sargasso 1: 53–72.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2013. “Limonese Creole English.” In World Englishes Volume III: Central America, ed. by Tometro Hopkins, Kendall Decker, and John McKenny, 205–250. London: Bloomsbury.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wolfram, Walt A. 1969. A Sociolinguistic Description of Detroit Negro Speech. Washington D.C.: Center for applied linguistics.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wolfson, Nessa. 1976. “Speech Events and Natural Speech: Some Implications for Sociolinguistic Methodology.” Language in Society 5: 189–209. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zien, Katherine A. 2017. Sovereign Acts: Performing Race, Space and Belonging in Panama and the Canal Zone. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue