Cover not available

In:Acquisition of Korean: The state of the art
Edited by Soonja Choi
[Trends in Language Acquisition Research 36] 2026
► pp. 378–408

Chapter 12
Socializing children to become speakers of Korean as a heritage language in immigrant families

 | University of California, Santa Barbara
 | University of California, Santa Barbara
This content is being prepared for publication; it may be subject to changes.
Abstract
In this global age of increasing transnationalism, children are often raised in multilingual settings where the language spoken in the home may differ from the dominant societal language. This has profound implications for their heritage language (HL) development. Through a review of research in the past two decades on family language policies and language socialization practices among Korean heritage-speaking families, we address the following questions: (1) What factors contribute to the maintenance of the HL within families?; (2) What strategies do parents employ to socialize their children as heritage speakers of Korean?; and (3) What challenges do parents encounter in this process? The goal of the chapter is to synthesize our knowledge of how HLs are developed among the growing population of Korean children in transnational families to contribute to a fuller understanding of the different pathways in child language acquisition.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Theoretical framework
    • 2.1Heritage language
    • 2.2Family language policy
    • 2.3Language socialization
  • 3.Characteristics of Korean heritage language speakers
    • 3.1Definition
    • 3.2Korean HL speakers’ linguistic repertoires
  • 4.Methodology for the literature survey
  • 5.Family language policies in Korean heritage-speaking families
    • 5.1Parental language ideologies
    • 5.2FLPs: Strategies and practices
    • 5.3Co-constructed language practices
    • 5.4Challenges to HL maintenance and parental beliefs
  • 6.Language socialization practices in Korean heritage-speaking families
    • 6.1Language socialization at home
    • 6.2Language socialization beyond the immediate family
    • 6.3Strategies for literacy development
  • 7.Conclusion
    • 7.1Institutional supports and practical strategies
    • 7.2Future directions for research and practice
  • Author queries
  • Notes
  • References
  • Appendix
References (118)
References
Au, T. K. & Oh, J. S. (2009). Korean as a heritage language. In C. Lee, G. B. Simpson, & Y. Kim (Eds.), Handbook of East Asian psycholinguistics (pp. 268–275). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and symbolic power. Polity Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Burdelski, M. J., & Howard, K. M. (Eds.). (2020). Language socialization in classrooms: Culture, interaction, and language development. Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chang, C. B. (2016). Bilingual perceptual benefits of experience with a heritage language. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 19(4), 791–809. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chatzidaki, A., & Maligkoudi, C. (2013). Family language policies among Albanian immigrants in Greece. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 16(6), 675–689. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cheng, A. (2020). Accent and ideology among bilingual Korean Americans (Doctoral dissertation). University of California, Berkeley. [URL]
Cho, H. (2016). A bilingual child’s language socialization in linguistically and culturally diverse contexts (Doctoral dissertation) The University at Buffalo, State University of New York. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (Publication No. 10127772).
Choi, H.-W. (2003). Paradigm leveling in American Korean. Language Research, 39(1), 183–204.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Choi, Y. (2022). Understanding the perspectives, practices, and expectations of Korean American parents toward the heritage language education of their children (Doctoral dissertation). University of San Francisco. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (Publication No. 29254139).
Chung, E. S. (2019). The Role of parental support in heritage language maintenance of Korean-Americans. Journal of British & American Studies, 45, 101–130. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cummins, J. (2001). Negotiating identities: Education for empowerment in a diverse society (2nd ed.). California Association for Bilingual Education.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Curdt-Christiansen, X. L. (2009). Invisible and visible language planning: Ideological factors in the family language policy of Chinese immigrant families in Quebec. Language Policy, 8, 351–375. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2016). Conflicting language ideologies and contradictory language practices in Singaporean multilingual families. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 37(7), 694–709. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Duff, P. A. (2010). Language socialization into academic discourse communities. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 30, 169–192. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Fishman, J. A. (1966). Language maintenance and language shift: The American immigrant case within a general theoretical perspective. Sociologus, 16(1), 19–39.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2001). 300-plus years of heritage language education in the United States. In J. K. Peyton, D. A. Ranard, & Scott McGinnis (Eds.), Heritage languages in America: Preserving a national resource (pp. 81–97). Center for Applied Linguistics & Delta Systems.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gafaranga, J. (2010). Medium request: Talking language shift into being. Language in Society, 39(2), 241–270. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
García, O. (2005). Positioning heritage languages in the United States. The Modern Language Journal, 89(4), 601–605. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2009). Bilingual education in the 21st century: A global perspective Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Garrett, P. B., & Baquedano-López, P. (2002). Language socialization: Reproduction and continuity, transformation and change. Annual Review of Anthropology, 31(1), 339–361. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Giles, H., & Johnson, P. (1987). Ethnolinguistic identity theory: A social psychological approach to language maintenance. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 68, 69–99. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Goodwin, M. H., & Kyratzis, A. (2011). Peer language socialization. In A. Duranti, E. Ochs, & B. B. Schieffelin (Eds.), The handbook of language socialization (pp. 365–390). Wiley-Blackwell. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gravelle, M. (1996). Supporting bilingual learners in schools. Trentham.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gumperz, J. (1982). Discourse strategies. Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Han, H. (2011). “Am I Korean American?” Beliefs and practices of parents and children living in two languages and two cultures (Doctoral dissertation). University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (Publication No. 3496313).
Harris, S., & Lee, J. S. (2022). Korean as a heritage language. In A. S. Byon & D. O. Pyun (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of Korean as a second language (pp. 437–453). Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Harris, S., Chen-Wu, H., Sue, E., & Lee, J. S. (2025). Affordances, challenges, and possibilities of Hallyu in the classroom: Korean language instructors’ perspectives. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 38(1), 38–56. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
He, A. W. (2006). Toward an identity theory of the development of Chinese as a heritage language. Heritage Language Journal, 4(1), 1–28. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2011). Heritage language socialization. In A. Duranti, E. Ochs, & B. B. Schieffelin (Eds.), The handbook of language socialization (pp. 587–609). Wiley-Blackwell. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Heller, M. (2008). Doing Ethnography. In W. Li & M. G. Moyer (Eds.) The Blackwell guide to research methods in bilingualism and multilingualism (pp. 249–262). Wiley-Blackwell. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hinton, L. (1999). Trading tongues: Loss of heritage languages in the United States. English Today, 22–30. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hornberger, N. H. (Ed.). (2003). Continua of biliteracy: An ecological framework for educational policy, research and practice in multilingual settings. Multilingual Matters. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hsu, P. L., & Roth, W. M. (2009). Lab technicians and high school student interns — Who is scaffolding whom? On forms of emergent expertise. Science Education, 93(1), 1–25. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hymes, D. H. (1992). Inequality in language: Taking for granted. Working Papers in Educational Linguistics, 8, 1–30. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jeon, M. (2008). Korean heritage language maintenance and language ideology. Heritage Language Journal, 6(2), 206–223. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jo, A., Richardson, S., & de Jong, E. J. (2023). “I feel really special and proud that I am bilingual”: Exploring a second-generation Korean American bilingual adolescent’s emotions and sense of belonging through family language policy. International Journal of Bilingualism, 27(2), 199–216. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jo, H. Y. (2001). ‘Heritage’ language learning and ethnic identity: Korean Americans’ struggle with language authorities. Language Culture and Curriculum, 14(1), 26–41. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Joo, S. J., Chik, A., & Djonov, E. (2024). “Church is like a mini-Korea”: The potential of migrant religious organisations for promoting heritage language maintenance. Applied Linguistics Review, 15(4), 1717–1745. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kang, H. S. (2013). Korean-immigrant parents’ support of their American-born children’s development and maintenance of the home language. Early Childhood Education Journal, 41, 431–438. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2015). Korean families in America: Their family language policies and home-language maintenance. Bilingual Research Journal, 38(3), 275–291. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kim, E. J. (2003). An analysis of particle errors by heritage and non-heritage learners of Korean. The Korean Language in America, 8, 37–49. [URL]
Kim, H.-S. H. (2001). Issues of heritage learners in Korean language classes. The Korean Language in America, 6, 257–274. [URL]
(2005). Processing strategies and transfer of heritage and non-heritage learners of Korean (Doctoral dissertation). University of Hawai’i at Manoa. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (Publication No. 3184496)
Kim, H. (2018). Korean transnational family language planning efforts and youth identities: language ideologies and the maintenance of Korean in the United States (Doctoral dissertation). The University of Utah. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (Publication No. 10980280)
Kim, J. (2018). Exploring literate identities in out-of-school contexts: A collective case study of four American-born children in Korean immigrant families (Doctoral dissertation). University of Wisconsin-Madison. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (Publication No. 10830609).
Kim, J.-H., Montrul, S., & Yoon, J. (2009). Binding interpretations of anaphors by Korean heritage speakers. Language Acquisition, 16(1), 3–35. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
King, K. A., Fogle, L., & Logan-Terry, A. (2008). Family language policy. Language and Linguistic Compass, 2(5), 907–922. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
King, K. A., & Fogle, L. (2006). Bilingual parenting as good parenting: Parents’ perspectives on family language policy for additive bilingualism. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 9(6), 695–712. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
King, K. A., & Fogle, L. W. (2013). Family language policy and bilingual parenting. Language Teaching, 46(2), 172–194. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
King, K. A., & Mackey, A. (2007). The bilingual edge: Why, when, and how to teach your child a second language. HarperCollins.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Koh, M.-S., Shin, S., Chung, I., & Reeves, K. (2009). Voices of culturally and linguistically diverse parents: A story of Korean parents of preschoolers. Michigan Academician, 39(1), 11–29. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kupisch, T., & Rothman, J. (2016). Terminology matters! Why difference is not incompleteness and how early child bilinguals are heritage speakers. International Journal of Bilingualism, 22(5), 564–582. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kwon, J. (2017). Immigrant mothers’ beliefs and transnational strategies for their children’s heritage language maintenance. Language and Education, 31(6), 495–508. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2019). Moving across linguistic, cultural, and geographic boundaries: A multi-sited ethnographic case study of immigrant children (Doctoral dissertation). Teachers College, Columbia University. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (Publication No. 13896024).
(2020). Negotiating family language policy and ideologies of multilingualism: Perspectives of a Korean mother and a Korean American child in a multiracial family. Language Arts, 97(6), 351–362. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, G. L., & Gupta, A. (2020). Raising children to speak their heritage language in the USA: Roles of Korean parents. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 11(4). 521–531. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, H. (2021). “No more Korean at home.” Family language policies, language practices, and challenges in Korean immigrant families: Intragroup diversities and intergenerational impacts. Linguistics and Education, 63, 1–13. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, H. & Pang, M. E. (2021). Educational discourse and knowledge construction in family language policy: The case of a Korean transnational family. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 45(5), 1538–1551. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, J. S. (2002). The Korean language in America: The role of cultural identity in heritage language learning. Language Culture and Curriculum, 15(2), 117–133. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2005). Through the learners’ eyes: Reconceptualizing the heritage and non-heritage learner of the less commonly taught languages. Foreign Language Annals, 38(4), 554–563. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, J. S., & Bucholtz, M. (2015). Language socialization across learning spaces. In N. Markee (Ed.), The handbook of classroom discourse and interaction (pp. 319–336). John Wiley & Sons. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, J. S. & Chen, H. (2021). Community-organized heritage language programs: Weekend schools, after-school programs, and beyond. In S. Montrul & M. Polinsky (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of heritage languages and linguistics. Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, J. S., Choi, J. Y., & Marqués-Pascual, L. (2016). An analysis of communicative language functions in the speech patterns of bilingual Korean and Mexican immigrant children. Journal of New Approaches in Educational Research, 5(2), 66–73. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, J. S., & Corella, M. (2017). Immigrant parents’ language brokering practices: A taxonomy of interlingual and intralingual brokering strategies. In R. S. Weisskirch (Ed.), Language brokering in immigrant families (pp. 247–269). Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, J. S., & Jeong, E. (2011). 자녀들의 이중언어 사용주의와 계승어 유지에 대한 부모들의 태도에 관한연구 [An analysis of Korean parents’ attitudes toward bilingualism and heritage language maintenance.] In N. Lee & H. Kim (Eds.) International conference proceedings for the globalization of the Korean language conference (pp. 103–125). CSULA/ Korean Education Center.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2013). Korean–English dual language immersion: Perspectives of students, parents and teachers. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 26(1), 89–107. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, J. S., & Shin, S. J. (Eds.). (2008). Korean as a heritage language (Special issue). Heritage Language Journal, 6(2). Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, J. S., & Suárez, D. (2009). A synthesis of the roles of heritage languages in the lives of children of immigrants: What educators need to know. In T. G. Wiley, J. S. Lee, & R. W. Rumberger (Eds.), The education of language minority immigrants in the United States (pp. 136–171). Multilingual Matters. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
MacGowan, B. (2002). SAT IIs must be put to the test. The Journal of College Admissions, 174, 5–9.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Macleroy Obied, V. (2010). Can one-parent families or divorced families produce two-language children? An investigation into how Portuguese-English bilingual children acquire biliteracy within diverse family structures. Pedagogy, Culture & Society, 18(2), 227–243. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mahboob, A., Paltridge, B., Phakiti, A., Wagner, E., Starfield, S., Burns, A., Jones, R. H., & De Costa, P. I. (2016). TESOL Quarterly research guidelines. TESOL Quarterly, 50(1), 42–65. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Martínez-Roldán, C. M., & Malavé, G. (2004). Language ideologies mediating literacy and identity in bilingual contexts. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 4(2), 155–180. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Min, P. G. (2000). Korean American’s language use. In S. L. McKay & S.-l. C. Wong (Eds.), New immigrants in the United States (pp. 306–332). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Montrul, S., & Polinsky, M. (2021). The Cambridge handbook of heritage languages and linguistics. Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nelson, D. K., Herrera Ruano, J., Parra Gutiérrez, R., & Zepeda Huerta, J. H. K. (2023). Linguistic trajectories and family language policy from the perspective of multilingual young adults in Mexico. Language Policy, 22(4), 457–475. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Norton, B. (2000). Identity and language learning: Gender, ethnicity and educational change. Pearson Education/Longman.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ochs, E., & Schieffelin, B. B. (1984). Language acquisition and socialization: Three developmental stories. In R. A. Shweder & R. A. LeVine (Eds.), Culture theory: Essays on mind, self, and emotion (pp. 276–320). Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Oh, J. S. (2003). Raising bilingual children: factors in maintaining a heritage language (Doctoral dissertation). University of California, Los Angeles. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (Publication No. 3089043).
Orellana, M. F. (2009). Translating childhoods. Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Overseas Korean Agency. (n.d.). Statistics of overseas Koreans. Retrieved on 5 July 2025 from [URL]
Palviainen, Å. (2020). Future prospects and visions for family language policy research. In A. C. Schalley & S. Eisenchlas (Eds.), Handbook of home language maintenance and development: Social and affective factors (pp. 236–254). Mouton De Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Palviainen, Å., & Räisä, T. (2023). Digital communication as part of family language policy: the interplay of multimodality and language status in a Finnish context. Language Policy, 22(4), 433–455. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Park, E. (2007). Language socialization in a Korean American community (Doctoral dissertation). New York University. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (Publication No. 3247767).
(2008). Intergenerational transmission of cultural values in Korean American families: An analysis of the verb suffix–ta. Heritage Language Journal, 6(2), 173–205. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Park, S. M., & Sarkar, M. (2007). Parents’ attitudes toward heritage language maintenance for their children and their efforts to help their children maintain the heritage language: A case study of Korean-Canadian immigrants. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 20(3), 223–235. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pascual y Cabo, D., & Rothman, J. (2012). The (Il)logical problem of heritage speaker bilingualism and incomplete acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 33, 450–455. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pennycook, A., & Makoni, S. (2020). Innovations and challenges in applied linguistics from the Global South. Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pérez-Milans, M., & Tollefson, J. W. (2018). The Oxford handbook of language policy and planning. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ro, Y. S. (2010). Navigating a bilingual/biliterate childhood: a longitudinal study of three second-generation young learners in the U.S. (Doctoral dissertation). University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses (Publication No. 3430897).
Schieffelin, B. B., & Ochs, E. (1986). Language Socialization Across Cultures. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Seo, Y. (2017). Early bilingual development: expanding our understanding of family language policy in heritage language maintenance (Doctoral dissertation). University of Washington. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. (Publication No. 10602099).
Shin, S. J. (2005). Developing in two Languages: Korean children in America. Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Shin, S. J., & Lee, J. S. (2013). Expanding capacity, opportunity, and desire to learn Korean as a heritage language. Heritage Language Journal, 10(3), 64–73. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Shin, S. J., & Milroy, L. (2000). Conversational codeswitching among Korean-English bilingual children. International Journal of Bilingualism, 4(3), 351–383. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Shin, S. Y. (2010). The functions of code-switching in a Korean Sunday school. Heritage Language Journal, 7(1), 91–116. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Shin, S.-C., & Joo, A. (2015). Lexical errors in Korean-Australian heritage learners’ compositions. Journal of Korean Language Education, 26, 129–162. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Siegel, S. Y. (2004). A case study of one Japanese heritage language program in Arizona. Bilingual Research Journal, 28(1), 123–134. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sok, S. Y. (2012). Five Korean immigrant mothers, five Korean American daughters (Doctoral dissertation). University of California, Los Angeles. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global (Publication No. 1511851).
Song, J. (2009). Bilingual creativity and self-negotiation: Korean American children’s language socialization into Korean address terms. In A. Reyes & A. Lo (Eds.), Beyond yellow English: Toward a linguistic anthropology of Asian Pacific America (pp. 213–232). Oxford University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2010). Language ideology and identity in transnational space: Globalization, migration, and bilingualism among Korean families in the USA. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 13(1), 23–42. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Song, K. (2016a). Nurturing young children’s biliteracy development: A Korean family’s hybrid literacy practices at home. Language Arts, 93(5), 341–353. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2016b). “Okay, I will say in Korean and then in American”: Translanguaging practices in bilingual homes. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 16(1), 84–106. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Spolsky, B. (2004). Language policy. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2012). Family language policy–the critical domain. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 33(1), 3–11. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Suh, S. (2020). An examination of the language socialization practices of three Korean American families through honorifics. Bilingual Research Journal, 43(1), 6–31. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sun, B., Loh, C. E., Bakar, M. A., & Vaish, V. (2023). Bilingual children’s perceived family language policy and its contribution to leisure reading. Language Policy, 22(4), 477–500. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Valdés, G. (2001). Heritage language students: Profiles and possibilities. In J. K. Peyton, D. A. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (Eds.), Heritage language in America: Preserving a national resource (pp. 37–77). Delta Systems and Center for Applied Linguistics.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2005). Bilingualism, heritage language learners, and SLA research: Opportunities lost or seized? The Modern Language Journal, 89(3), 410–426. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Van Deusen-Scholl, N. (2003). Toward a definition of heritage language: Sociopolitical and pedagogical considerations. Journal of Language, Identity, and Education, 2(3), 211–230. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Veltman, C. (1983). Language shift in the United States. Mouton. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Watson-Gegeo, K. A., & Gegeo, D. W. (1992). Schooling, knowledge, and power: Social transformation in the Solomon Islands. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 23(1), 10–29. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wei, L. (2018). Translanguaging as a practical theory of language. Applied Linguistics, 39(1), 9–30. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wiley, T. (2001). On defining heritage languages and their speakers. In J. Peyton, D. Ranard, & S. McGinnis (Eds.), Heritage languages in America: Preserving a national resource (pp. 29–36). Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wiley, T. G., Lee, J. S., & Rumberger, R. W. (Eds.). (2009). The education of language minority immigrants in the United States. Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wiley, T. G., Peyton, J. K., Christian, D., Moore, S. C. K., & Liu, N. (2014). Handbook of heritage, community, and native American languages in the United States. Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zhang, D., & Koda, K. (2011). Home literacy environment and word knowledge development: A study of young learners of Chinese as a heritage language. Bilingual Research Journal, 34(1), 4–18. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue