Cover not available

Article published In: The Assessment of Functional Adequacy in Language Performance: Special issue of the Journal on Task-Based Language Teaching and Learning 2:1 (2022)
Edited by Folkert Kuiken and Ineke Vedder
[TASK 2:1] 2022
► pp. 33–59

Get fulltext from our e-platform
JBE logo with link
PDF logo with download linkDownload PDF
EPUB logo with download linkDownload EPUB
authorization required

The role of pausing in L2 oral task performance

Toward a complete construct of functional adequacy

ORCiD logo with link | City University of New York
ORCiD logo with link | University College London
ORCiD logo with link | Norwegian University of Science and Technology
 | University College London
Published online: 20 June 2022
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/task.21013.eki
Abstract
Studies of L2 oral task performance report fluency as critical for functional adequacy, with pausing behaviors emerging as strong predictors of functionally adequate speech. The present study investigated the extent to which the type and location of pausing is related to functional adequacy. Oral performances on two tasks by 40 L2 speakers of English at four proficiency levels were rated on a functional adequacy scale and analyzed for type of pausing, silent and filled at mid- or end-clause location. The study found significant relationships between functional adequacy and the frequency of end-clause pauses in L2 speech. We interpreted this finding as suggesting that breakdowns in message conceptualization play a role in how the functional adequacy of L2 speech is construed by the listeners.
Article outline
  • Functional adequacy and fluency in L2 speech
  • Pausing in L2 speech
  • Method
    • Dataset
    • Speaking tasks
    • Functional adequacy ratings
    • Pause analyses of speaking performances
    • Statistical analyses
  • Results
    • Functional adequacy and rater severity: Rasch analysis results
    • Pausing and functional adequacy: Results from linear mixed effects regression analyses
  • Discussion and conclusions
  • Acknowledgements
  • References
References (61)
References
Boersma, P., & Weenink, D. (2007). PRAAT doing phonetics by computer (Version 5.2.34) [Computer software]. [URL]
Bosker, H. R., Quené, H., Sanders, T., & De Jong, N. H. (2014). Native ’um’s elicit prediction of low-frequency referents, but non-native ’um’s do not. Journal of Memory and Language, 751, 104–116. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bridgeman, B., Powers, D., Stone, E., & Mollaun, P. (2012). TOEFL iBT speaking test scores as indicators of oral communicative language proficiency. Language Testing, 29(1), 91–108. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Brown, J. D., Hudson, T., Norris, J., & Bonk, W. (2002). An investigation of second language task-based performance assessments. Technical Report No. 24. University of Hawaii, Second Language Teaching & Curriculum Center.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Butterworth, B. (1975). Hesitation and semantic planning in speech. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 41, 75–87. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Clark, H. (2002). Speaking in time. Speech Communication, 36(1–2), 5–13. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Clark, H., & Fox Tree, J. (2002). Using ‘uh’ and ‘um’ in spontaneous speaking. Cognition, 841, 73–111. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Davies, A. (2003). Native speaker: Myth and reality. Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
De Johnson, T., O’Connell, D., & Sabin, E. (1979). Temporal analysis of English and Spanish narratives. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 13(6), 347–350. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
De Jong, N. (2016). Predicting pauses in L1 and L2 speech: The effects of utterance boundaries and word frequency. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 54(2), 113–132. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2018). Fluency in second language testing: Insights from different disciplines. Language Assessment Quarterly, 15(3), 237–254. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
De Jong, N., & Mora, J. (2019). Does having good articulatory skills lead to more fluent speech in first and second languages? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 41(1), 227–239. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
De Jong, N., Groenhout, R., Schoonen, R., & Hulstijn, J. (2015). Second language fluency: speaking style or proficiency? Correcting measures of second language fluency for first language behavior. Applied Psycholinguistics, 36(2), 223–243. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
De Jong, N., Steinel, M. P., Florijn, A. F., Schoonen, R., & Hulstijn, J. (2012a). The effect of task complexity on functional adequacy, fluency and lexical diversity in speaking performances of native and non-native speakers. In A. Housen, F. Kuiken, & I. Vedder (Eds.), Dimensions of L2 performance and proficiency. Complexity, accuracy and fluency in SLA (pp. 121–142). John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2012b). Facets of speaking proficiency. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34(1), 5–34. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
De Jong, N., Steinel, M., Florijn, A., Schoonen, R., & Hulstijn, J. (2013). ‘Linguistic skills and speaking fluency in a second language.’ Applied Psycholinguistics 34(5), 893–916. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Derwing, T., Munro, M., Thomson, R., & Rossiter, M. (2009). The relationship between L1 fluency and L2 fluency development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 31(4), 533–557. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Duran-Karaoz, Z., & Tavakoli, P. (2020). Predicting L2 fluency from L1 fluency behavior: The case of L1 Turkish and L2 English speakers. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 42(4), 671–695. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ekiert, M., Lampropoulou, S., Révész, A., & Torgersen, E. (2018). The effects of task type and L2 proficiency on discourse appropriacy in oral task performance. In N. Taguchi & Y-J. Kim (Eds.), Task-based approaches to assessing pragmatics (pp. 247–264). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Field, J. (2011). Cognitive validity. In L. Taylor (Ed.), Examining speaking: Research and practice in assessing second language speaking (pp. 65–111). Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Fillmore, C. (1979). On fluency. In C. Fillmore, D. Kemple, & W. Wang (Eds.), Individual differences in language ability and language behavior (pp. 85–101). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Goldman-Eisler, F. (1968). Psycholinguistics; Experiments in spontaneous speech. Academic Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Halenko, N., & Winder, L. (2021). Examining academic email requests to faculty and developmental change during study abroad. In M. Economidou-Kogetsidis, M. Savi, & N. Halenko (Eds.). Email pragmatics and second language learners (pp. 101–126). Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kahng, J. (2014). Exploring utterance and cognitive fluency of L1 and L2 English speakers: Temporal measures and stimulated recall. Language Learning, 64(4), 809–854. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kim, H.-J. (2006). Providing validity evidence for a speaking test using FACETS. Teachers College Columbia University Working Papers in TESOL & Applied Linguistics 6/11. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kormos, J. (2006). Speech production and L2 acquisition. Lawrence Erlbaum. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kuiken, F., & Vedder, I. (2014). Rating written performance: What do raters do and why? Language Testing, 31(3), 329–348. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kuiken, & Vedder, I. (2017). Functional adequacy in L2 writing: Towards a new rating scale. Language Testing, 34(3), 321–336. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kuiken, F., & Vedder, I. (2018). Assessing functional adequacy of L2 performance in a task-based approach. In N. Taguchi & Y-J. Kim (Eds.), Task-based approaches to assessing pragmatics (pp. 265–286). John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2019). From CAF to CAFFA: Measuring linguistic performance and functional adequacy in task-based language teaching. Plenary speech delivered at Task-Based Language Teaching Conference, Ottawa, Canada.
Kuiken, F., Vedder, I., & Gilabert, R. (2010). Communicative adequacy and linguistic complexity in L2 writing. In I. Bartning, M. Martin & I. Vedder (Eds.) Communicative proficiency and linguistic development: Intersections between SLA and language testing research (pp. 81–100). Eurosla Monographs Series 1. European Second Language Association.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lambert, C., & Kormos, J. (2014). Complexity, accuracy, and fluency in task-based L2 research: Toward more developmentally based measures of second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 35(5), 607–614. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lambert, C., Kormos, J., & Minn, D. (2017). Task repetition and second language speech processing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 39(1), 167–196. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lennon, P. (1990). Investigating fluency in EFL: A quantitative approach. Language Learning, 40(3), 387–417. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Levelt, W. (1989). Speaking. MIT Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Levelt, W., Roelofs, A., & Meyer, A. (1999). A theory of lexical access in speech production. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 22(1), 1–37. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Linacre, M. (2002). Optimizing rating scale category effectiveness. Journal of Applied Measurement, 3(1), 85–106. [URL]
Pallotti, G. (2009). CAF: Defining, refining and differentiating constructs. Applied Linguistics, 30(4), 590–601. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2019). Assessing tasks: The case of interactional difficulty. Applied Linguistics (40)11, 176–197. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pollitt, A., & Hutchinson, C. (1987). Calibrated graded assessment: Rasch partial credit analysis of performance in writing. Language Testing, 4(1), 72–92. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Purpura, J. (2004). Assessing grammar. Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rasch, G. (1960). Probabilistic models for some intelligence and attainment tests. Danish Institute of Educational Research.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Révész, A., Ekiert, M., & Torgersen, E. (2016). The effects of complexity, accuracy and fluency on communicative adequacy in oral task performance. Applied Linguistics, 37(6), 828–848. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Riazantseva, A. (2001). Second language proficiency and pausing: A study of Russian speakers of English. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 23(4), 497–526. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schmid, M., & Beers Fägersten, K. (2010). Disfluency markers in L1 attrition. Language Learning, 60(4), 753–791. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schmidgall, J., & Powers, D. E. (2021). Predicting communicative effectiveness in the international workplace: Support for TOEIC® Speaking test scores from linguistic laypersons. Language Testing, 38(2), 302–325. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Searle, J. (1979). Expression and meaning: Studies in the theory of speech acts. Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Segalowitz, N. (2010). Cognitive bases of second language fluency. Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2016). Second language fluency and its underlying cognitive and social determinants. IRAL, 54(2), 79–96. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Skehan, P. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Skehan, P., Xiaoyue, B., Quian, L., & Wang, Z. (2012). The task is not enough: Processing approaches to task-based performance. Language Teaching Research, 16(2), 170–187. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Suzuki, S., Kormos, J., & Uchihara, T. (2021). The relationship between utterance and perceived fluency: A meta-analysis of correlational studies. Modern Language Journal, 105(2), 435–463. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Swerts, M. (1998). Filled pauses as markers of discourse structure. Journal of Pragmatics, 301, 485–496. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tankó, G. (2005). Into Europe: The writing handbook. Teleki La´szló Foundation.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tavakoli, P. (2011). Pausing patterns: Differences between L2 learners and native speakers. ELT Journal, 65(1), 71–79. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tavakoli, P., Nakatsuhara, F. & Hunter, A-M. (2017). Scoring validity of the APTIS speaking test: Investigating fluency across tasks and levels of proficiency. British Council. [URL]
Watanabe, M., Hirose, K., Den, Y., & Minematsu, N. (2008). Filled pauses as cues to the complexity of upcoming phrases for native and non-native listeners. Speech Communication, 501, 81–94. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wu, J., & Roever, C. (2021). Proficiency and preference organization in second language Mandarin Chinese refusals. The Modern Language Journal, 1051, 897–918. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Young, R. (2011). Interactional competence in language learning, teaching, and testing. In E. Hinkel (Ed.), Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning (pp. 426–443). London: Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cited by (8)

Cited by eight other publications

Li, Shaopeng, Zehao Wang & Xianru Ge
2025. Effects of Task Complexity and L2 Proficiency on Functional Adequacy in L2 Writing. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 35:2 ► pp. 543 ff. DOI logo
Lu, Xiaojun & Yui Suzukida
2025. Relationships of Linguistic Complexity and Accuracy to Functional Adequacy Across L2 English Speaking and Writing: Roles of L2 Proficiency and Task Type. International Journal of Applied Linguistics DOI logo
Koizumi, Rie & Yo In'nami
2024. Predicting functional adequacy from complexity, accuracy, and fluency of second-language picture-prompted speaking. System 120 ► pp. 103208 ff. DOI logo
Morrison, Astrid & Parvaneh Tavakoli
2023. Task communicative function and oral fluency of L1 and L2 speakers. The Modern Language Journal 107:4 ► pp. 896 ff. DOI logo
Kuiken, Folkert & Ineke Vedder
2022. Speaking. In Research methods in instructed second language acquisition [Research Methods in Applied Linguistics, 3], ► pp. 329 ff. DOI logo
Kuiken, Folkert & Ineke Vedder
2025. From CAF to CAFFA. In Broadening the Horizon of TBLT [Task-Based Language Teaching, 17], ► pp. 147 ff. DOI logo
Williams, Thomas A.
2022. A feladatközpontú nyelvtanítás (TBLT) elmélete és gyakorlata. Magyar Pedagógia 122:1 ► pp. 47 ff. DOI logo
[no author supplied]
2025. Second Language Cognitive Task Complexity [Task-Based Language Teaching, 18], DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 5 december 2025. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.

Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue