Cover not available

In:Theories of Reading Development
Edited by Kate Cain, Donald L. Compton and Rauno K. Parrila
[Studies in Written Language and Literacy 15] 2017
► pp. 127–146

Get fulltext from our e-platform
JBE logo with link
PDF logo with download linkDownload Book PDF
authorization required

Orthographic mapping and literacy development revisited

 | Graduate Center of the City University of New York
Published online: 14 August 2017
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/swll.15.08ehr
Abstract
Orthographic mapping (OM) involves the formation of letter-sound connections to bond the spellings to the pronunciations and meanings of specific words in memory. It explains how children learn to read words by sight, to spell words from memory, and to acquire vocabulary words from print. This development is portrayed by Ehri (2005a) as a sequence of overlapping phases, each characterized by the predominant type of connection linking spellings of words to their pronunciations in memory. During development, the connections improve in quality and word-learning value, from visual non-alphabetic, to partial alphabetic, to full grapho-phonemic, to consolidated grapho-syllabic and grapho-morphemic. OM is enabled by phonemic awareness and grapheme-phoneme knowledge. Recent findings indicate that sight word reading is facilitated by OM when beginners are taught about articulatory features of phonemes and when grapheme-phoneme relations are taught with letter-embedded picture mnemonics. Vocabulary learning is facilitated when spellings accompany pronunciations and meanings of new words to activate OM. Teaching students the strategy of pronouncing novel words aloud as they read text silently activates OM and helps them build their vocabularies. Because spelling-sound connections are retained in memory, they impact the processing of phonological constituents and phonological memory for words.
Article outline
  • Orthographic mapping in the acquisition of sight word reading, spelling memory, and vocabulary learning
    • Word reading strategies and orthographic mapping
    • Phases in the development of word reading skills
    • Facilitating sight word learning in beginners
      • Phonemic awareness
      • Letter knowledge
    • Orthographic mapping to facilitate vocabulary learning
      • Extension to text reading
    • Impact of orthographic mapping on phonological representations
    • Concluding comments
  • References
References (45)
References
Bhattacharya, A. & Ehri, L. (2004). Grapho-syllabic analysis helps adolescent struggling readers read and spell words. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37, 331–348. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Boyer, N. & Ehri, L. (2011). Contribution of phonemic segmentation instruction with letters and articulation pictures to word reading and spelling in beginners. Scientific Studies of Reading, 15, 440–470. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cain, K. & Oakhill, J. (2011). Matthew Effects in young readers: Reading comprehension and reading experience aid vocabulary development. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 44, 431–443. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cardoso-Martins, C., Mesquita, T., & Ehri, L. (2011). Letter names and phonological awareness help children to learn letter-sound relations. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 109, 25–38. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Castiglioni-Spalten, M. & Ehri, L. (2003). Phonemic awareness instruction: Contribution of articulatory segmentation to novice beginners’ reading and spelling. Scientific Studies of Reading, 7, 25–52. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ehri, L. (1984). How orthography alters spoken language competencies in children learning to read and spell. In J. Downing & R. Valtin (Eds.), Language awareness and learning to read (pp. 119–147). New York: Springer Verlag. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cunningham, A., Nathan, R. & Raher, K. (2011). Orthographic processing in models of word recognition. In M. Kamil, P. Pearson, E. Moje, & P. Afflerbach (Eds.), Handbook of reading research, Volume IV. (pp. 259–285). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ehri, L. (1987). Learning to read and spell words. Journal of Reading Behavior, 14, 5–31. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1992). Re-conceptualizing the development of sight word reading and its relationship to recoding. In P. Gough, L. Ehri, & R. Treiman (Eds.), Reading acquisition (pp. 107–143). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1998). Grapheme–phoneme knowledge is essential for learning to read words in English. In J. Metsala & L. Ehri (Eds.), Word recognition in beginning literacy (pp. 3–40). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2005a). Development of sight word reading: Phases and findings. In M. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.), The science of reading: A handbook (pp. 135–154). Malden, MA: Blackwell. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2005b). Learning to read words: Theory, findings and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading 9, 167–188. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ehri, L., Deffner, N., & Wilce, L. (1984). Pictorial mnemonics for phonics. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 880–893. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ehri, L., Nunes, S., Willows, D., Schuster, B., Yghaoub-Zadeh, Z., & Shanahan, T. (2001). Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel meta-analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36, 250–287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ehri, L. & Wilce, L. (1979). The mnemonic value of orthography among beginning readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 26–40. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1980). The influence of orthography on readers’ conceptualization of the phonemic structure of words. Applied Psycholinguistics, 1, 371–385. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1983). Development of word identification speed in skilled and less skilled beginning readers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 3–18. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ehri, L., & Wilce, L. (1985). Movement into reading: Is the first stage of printed word learning visual or phonetic? Reading Research Quarterly, 20, 163–179. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1987). Cypher versus cue reading: An experiment in decoding acquisition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 3–13. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gaskins, I., Ehri, L., Cress, C., O’Hara, C., & Donnelly, K. (1996). Procedures for word learning: Making discoveries about words. The Reading Teacher, 50, 312–327.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gathercole, S. (2006). Non-word repetition and word learning: The nature of the relationship. Applied Psycholinguistics, 27, 513–543.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Laing, E., & Hulme, C. (1999). Phonological and semantic processes influence beginning readers’ ability to learn to read words. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 73, 183–207. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Liberman, A. (1999). The reading researcher and the reading teacher need the right theory of speech. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 95–111. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
McCandliss, B., Sandal, R., Beck, I., & Perfetti, C., (2003). Focusing attention on decoding for children with poor reading skills: Design and preliminary tests of the Word Building intervention. Scientific Studies of Reading. 7, 75–105. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Moats, L. (2010). Speech to print: Language essentials for teachers. (2nd ed.) Baltimore, MD: Brookes.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nagy, W. & Scott, J. (2000). Vocabulary processes. In M. Kamil, P. Mossenthal, P. Pearson, & R. Barr (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 3, pp. 269–284). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Perfetti, C. (1985). Reading ability. New York: Oxford University press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2007). Reading ability: Lexical quality to comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11, 357–383. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rack, J., Hulme, C., Snowling, M., & Wightman, J. (1994). The role of phonology in young children learning to read words: The direct-mapping hypothesis. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 57, 42–71. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ricketts, J., Bishop, D., & Nation, K. (2009). Orthographic facilitation in oral vocabulary acquisition. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62, 1948–1966. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Roberts, T. (2003). Effects of alphabet-letter instruction on young children’s word recognition. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 41–51. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rosenthal, J. & Ehri, L. (2008). The mnemonic value of orthography for vocabulary learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 175–191. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2011). Pronouncing new words aloud during the silent reading of text enhances fifth graders’ memory for vocabulary words and their spellings. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 24, 921–950. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Seidenberg, M. & Tanenhaus, M. (1979). Orthographic effects on rhyme monitoring. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 5, 546–554.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Share, D. (2004a). Knowing letter names and learning letter sounds: A causal connection. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 88, 213–233. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2004b). Orthographic learning at a glance: On the time course and developmental onset of self-teaching. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 87, 267–298. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2008). Orthographic learning, phonological recoding, and self-teaching. In R. Kail (Ed.), Advances in child development and behavior (pp. 31–81). New York, NY: Elsevier.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Shmidman, A. & Ehri, L. (2010). Embedded picture mnemonics to learn letters. Scientific Studies of Reading, 14, 159–182. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Siegler. R. (1996). Emerging minds: The process of change in children’s thinking. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Stuart, M. & Coltheart, M. (1988). Does reading develop in a sequence of stages? Cognition, 30, 139–181. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Treiman, R., Goswami, U., & Bruck, M. (1990). Not all non-words are alike: Implications for reading development and theory. Memory and Cognition, 18, 559–567. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Treiman, R. & Kessler, B. (2006). Spelling as statistical learning: Using consonant context to spell vowels. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98, 642–652. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tunmer, W. & Chapman, J. (2012). Does set for variability mediate the influence of vocabulary knowledge on the development of word recognition skills. Scientific Studies of Reading, 16, 122–140. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tunmer, W. & Nicholson, T. (2011). The development and teaching of word recognition skill. In M. Kamil, P. Pearson, E. Moje, & P. Afflerbach (Eds.), Handbook of reading research, Volume IV. (pp. 405–431). New York: Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Venezky, R. (1999). The American way of spelling: The structure and origins of American English orthography. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cited by (34)

Cited by 34 other publications

Alsiddiqi, Zakiyah A., Vesna Stojanovik & Emma Pagnamenta
2025. Early Oral Language and Cognitive Predictors of Emergent Literacy Skills in Arabic-Speaking Children: Evidence From Saudi Children With Developmental Language Disorder. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 68:3S ► pp. 1505 ff. DOI logo
Clemens, Nathan H., Sharon Vaughn, Gregory Roberts & Marcia Barnes
2025. Three Related Experimental Pilot Studies Aimed to Innovate Reading Intervention for Students with Word Reading Difficulties. Mind, Brain, and Education 19:4 ► pp. 317 ff. DOI logo
Gunnarsson, Helena & Christian Waldmann
2025. Word reading and pain: does short-lasting pain affect phonological decoding?. Cogent Psychology 12:1 DOI logo
Hurford, David P., Alex C. Fender, Michaela R. Ozier, Molly J. Baumgardner, Cynthia R. Lane & Laurie J. Curtis
2025. From taskforce to blueprint: implementation of literacy policy in Kansas. Annals of Dyslexia 75:3 ► pp. 451 ff. DOI logo
Adedeji, Victoria I., Julie A. Kirkby, Martin R. Vasilev & Timothy J. Slattery
2024. Children’s Reading of Sublexical Units in Years Three to Five: A Combined Analysis of Eye-Movements and Voice Recording. Scientific Studies of Reading 28:2 ► pp. 214 ff. DOI logo
Dahl-Leonard, Katlynn, Colby Hall, Michael P. Mesa, Tricia A. Zucker & Delanie Peacott
2024. Exploring Small-Group Reading Instruction for Students at Risk for Reading Difficulties in Kindergarten Classrooms. Reading & Writing Quarterly 40:6 ► pp. 549 ff. DOI logo
Giazitzidou, Sophia, Panagiotis Simos, Athanasios Bachoumis, Vassilios Papadimitriou & Angeliki Mouzaki
2024. Spelling development of children with and without reading difficulties throughout elementary grades: evidence from the Greek orthography. Annals of Dyslexia 74:2 ► pp. 197 ff. DOI logo
Müller, Mirela & Mirjana Matea Kovač
2024. Students' attitudes on the importance of reading habits as a vital factor for L2 development: An example from higher education practice. Forum for Linguistic Studies 6:2 DOI logo
Niolaki, Georgia Z., Vassilios Papadimitriou, Aris R. Terzopoulos & Jackie Masterson
2024. Greek-spelling predictors; an investigation of literacy- and cognitive-related factors. Journal of Cognitive Psychology 36:3 ► pp. 378 ff. DOI logo
Gottardo, Alexandra, Redab Al-Janaideh, Johanne Paradis, Adriana Soto-Corominas, Xi Chen & Norah Amin
2023. Age, Experience and Language and Literacy Skills in English-Arabic Speaking Syrian Refugees. Languages 8:2 ► pp. 101 ff. DOI logo
Hassanein, Elsayed E. A., Evelyn S. Johnson, Sayed Ibrahim & Yousef Alshaboul
2023. What predicts word reading in Arabic?. Frontiers in Psychology 14 DOI logo
Davis, Dennis S., Courtney Samuelson, Jill Grifenhagen, Robyn DeIaco & Jackie Relyea
2022. Getting KnERDI with Language: Examining Teachers’ Knowledge for Enhancing Reading Development in Code‐Based and Meaning‐Based Domains. Reading Research Quarterly 57:3 ► pp. 781 ff. DOI logo
Kearns, Devin M. & Elfrieda H. Hiebert
2022. The Word Complexity of Primary‐Level Texts: Differences Between First and Third Grade in Widely Used Curricula. Reading Research Quarterly 57:1 ► pp. 255 ff. DOI logo
Layes, Smail, Marjolaine Cohen & Sietske van Viersen
2022. The triple-deficit hypothesis in Arabic: Evidence from children with and without dyslexia. Applied Psycholinguistics 43:5 ► pp. 1165 ff. DOI logo
Papadimitriou, Vassilios & Vassilios Argyropoulos
2022. The Word Length Effect on Text Reading Via the Braille Code. Scientific Studies of Reading 26:5 ► pp. 432 ff. DOI logo
Boyle, Susannah, David McNaughton, Janice Light, Salena Babb & Shelley E. Chapin
2021. The Effects of Shared e-Book Reading With Dynamic Text and Speech Output on the Single-Word Reading Skills of Young Children With Developmental Disabilities. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools 52:1 ► pp. 426 ff. DOI logo
Brown, Kathleen J., Kelly C. Patrick, Matthew K. Fields & Grace T. Craig
2021. Phonological Awareness Materials in Utah Kindergartens: A Case Study in the Science of Reading. Reading Research Quarterly 56:S1 DOI logo
Cunningham, Anna J., Adrian P. Burgess, Caroline Witton, Joel B. Talcott & Laura R. Shapiro
2021. Dynamic relationships between phonological memory and reading: A five year longitudinal study from age 4 to 9. Developmental Science 24:1 DOI logo
Davis, Dennis S., Jill S. Jones & Courtney Samuelson
2021. Is It Time for a Hard Conversation about Cueing Systems and Word Reading in Teacher Education?. Reading & Writing Quarterly 37:4 ► pp. 301 ff. DOI logo
Erickson, Joy Dangora, Alessandra E. Ward, Jacquelynne Anne Boivin & Beth Fornauf
2021. Five Principles to Nurture Motivation Within Early Reading Interventions. The Reading Teacher 74:5 ► pp. 493 ff. DOI logo
Grigorakis, Ioannis & George Manolitsis
2021. Longitudinal effects of different aspects of morphological awareness skills on early spelling development. Reading and Writing 34:4 ► pp. 945 ff. DOI logo
Hassanein, Elsayed E. A., Evelyn S. Johnson, Yousef Alshaboul, Sayed Ibrahim, Ahmed Megreya, Maha Al-Hendawi & Asma Al-Attiyah
2021. Developing a Test of Early Arabic Literacy Skills. Reading Psychology 42:3 ► pp. 241 ff. DOI logo
Pezzino, Anne-Sophie, Nathalie Marec-Breton, Corentin Gonthier & Agnès Lacroix
2021. Factors Explaining Deficits in Reading Acquisition: The Case of Williams Syndrome. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 64:10 ► pp. 3894 ff. DOI logo
Tibi, Sana, Lisa Fitton & Autumn L. McIlraith
2021. The development of a measure of orthographic knowledge in the Arabic language: A psychometric evaluation. Applied Psycholinguistics 42:3 ► pp. 739 ff. DOI logo
Ehri, Linnea C.
2020. The Science of Learning to Read Words: A Case for Systematic Phonics Instruction. Reading Research Quarterly 55:S1 DOI logo
Niolaki, Georgia Z., Janet Vousden, Aris R. Terzopoulos, Laura M. Taylor, Shani Sephton & Jackie Masterson
2020. Predictors of single word spelling in English speaking children: a cross sectional study. Journal of Research in Reading 43:4 ► pp. 577 ff. DOI logo
Park, Yujeong, Mary T. Brownell, Deborah K. Reed, Sana Tibi & Linda J. Lombardino
2020. Exploring How Initial Response to Instruction Predicts Morphology Outcomes Among Students With Decoding Difficulties. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools 51:3 ► pp. 655 ff. DOI logo
Pezzino, Anne-Sophie, Nathalie Marec-Breton & Agnès Lacroix
2020. L’apprentissage de la langue écrite dans le cas du syndrome de Williams. Enfance N° 4:4 ► pp. 475 ff. DOI logo
Tijms, Jurgen, Elpida V. Pavlidou & Hester A. I. Hoette
2020. Improvements in reading and spelling skills after a phonological and morphological knowledge intervention in Greek children with spelling difficulties: a pilot study. European Journal of Special Needs Education 35:5 ► pp. 711 ff. DOI logo
Gruhn, Sophie, Eliane Segers & Ludo Verhoeven
2019. The Efficiency of Briefly Presenting Word Forms in a Computerized Repeated Spelling Training. Reading & Writing Quarterly 35:3 ► pp. 225 ff. DOI logo
Isbell, Elif, Susan D. Calkins, Veronica T. Cole, Margaret M. Swingler & Esther M. Leerkes
2019. Longitudinal associations between conflict monitoring and emergent academic skills: An event‐related potentials study. Developmental Psychobiology 61:4 ► pp. 495 ff. DOI logo
Tibi, Sana & John R. Kirby
2019. Reading in Arabic: How Well Does the Standard Model Apply?. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 62:4 ► pp. 993 ff. DOI logo
TIBI, SANA, JAMIE L. TOCK & JOHN R. KIRBY
2019. The development of a measure of root awareness to account for reading performance in the Arabic language: A development and validation study. Applied Psycholinguistics 40:2 ► pp. 303 ff. DOI logo
Castles, Anne, Kathleen Rastle & Kate Nation
2018. Ending the Reading Wars: Reading Acquisition From Novice to Expert. Psychological Science in the Public Interest 19:1 ► pp. 5 ff. DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 4 december 2025. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.

Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue