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Published online: 13 January 2026

Table 1.Tones in Mandarin Chinese7

Table 2.IPA chart of pulmonic consonants40

Table 3.Inventory of consonants in General American English44

Table 4.Inventory of consonants in Mandarin Chinese45

Table 5.Inventory of monophthongs in General American English48

Table 6.Inventory of monophthongs in Mandarin Chinese48

Table 7.Phonemic use of the neutral tone in Mandarin Chinese53

Table 8.Anglo-Saxon runes105

Table 9.Old English Latin alphabet106

Table 10.Some commonly used numeral classifiers
in Mandarin Chinese182

Table 11.Major semantic relations expressed by headed compound nouns in English and Mandarin211

Table 12.Replacement of purely/partly phonetic loanwords
with purely semantic loanwords231

Table 13.Use of NP, pronoun, and zero anaphora in Mandarin (based on Pu 1997: 288)309

Table 14.Use of NP, pronoun, and zero anaphora in English
(based on Brown 1983: 328)309