In:Imperatives and Directive Strategies
Edited by Daniël Van Olmen and Simone Heinold
[Studies in Language Companion Series 184] 2017
► pp. 1–50
Imperatives and directive strategies from a functional-typological perspective
An introduction
Published online: 11 April 2017
https://doi.org/10.1075/slcs.184.01van
https://doi.org/10.1075/slcs.184.01van
Article outline
- 1.Preliminaries
- 2.Imperatives
- 2.1Cross-linguistic characterization
- 2.2Meaning
- 2.3Uses
- 2.4Interaction with other grammatical categories
- 2.5Contributions to this volume
- 3.Directive strategies
- 3.1Forms
- 3.1.1Sentence types
- 3.1.2Non-finite verbal forms
- 3.1.3Non-verbal forms
- 3.1.4Other forms of interest
- 3.1.5Conclusion
- 3.2Uses
- 3.3Imperatives versus other directive strategies
- 3.4Contributions to this volume
- 3.1Forms
- 4.Conclusion
Abbreviations Acknowledgements Notes References
References (132)
Abraham, Werner. 1986. Unaccusatives in German. Groninger Arbeiten zur germanistischen Linguistik 28: 1–72.
Alexiadou, Artemis. 2001. Functional Structure in Nominals. Nominalization and Ergativity [Linguistik Aktuell/Linguistics Today 42]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Altmann, Hans. 1987. Zur Problematik der Konstitution von Satzmodi als Formtypen (On the problem of sentence types constituting formal types). In Satzmodus zwischen Grammatik und Pragmatik (
Sentence Types between Grammar and Pragmatics
), Jörg Meibauer (ed.), 22–56. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
Antaki, Charles & Kent, Alexandra. 2012. Telling people what to do (and, sometimes, why): Contingency, entitlement and explanation in staff requests to adults with intellectual impairments. Journal of Pragmatics 44: 876–889.
Bennis, Hans. 2006. Agreement, pro, and imperatives. In Arguments and Agreement, Peter Ackema, Patrick Brandt, Maaike Schoorlemmer & Fred Weerman (eds), 101–123. Oxford: OUP.
Birjulin, Leonid A. & Xrakovskij, Viktor S. 2001. Imperative sentences: Theoretical problems. In S. Xrakovskij (ed.), 3–50.
Blom, Alied. 1987. Kloppen s.v.p.: Onderdeel van een procedure (Kloppen s.v.p.: Part of a procedure). Voortgang 8: 177–189.
Blum-Kulka, Shoshana. 1987. Indirectness and politeness in requests: Same or different? Journal of Pragmatics 11(2): 131–146.
Blum-Kulka, Shoshana, House, Juliane & Kasper, Gabriele. 1989. Cross-Cultural Pragmatics. Requests and Apologies. Norwood NJ: Ablex.
Brown, Penelope & Levinson, Stephen C. 1987. Politeness. Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge: CUP.
Bruce, Les. 1984. The Alamblak Language of Papua New Guinea (East Sepik). Canberra: Australian National University.
Bybee, Joan, Perkins, Revere & Pagliuca, William. 1994. The Evolution of Grammar. Tense, Aspect and Modality in the Languages of the World. Chicago IL: University of Chicago Press.
Cavalcante, Rerisson. 2011. Negative imperatives in Portuguese and other Romance languages. In Romance Linguistics 2010 [Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 318], Julia Herschensohn (ed.), 205–219. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Collins, Peter. 2004.
Let-imperatives in English. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 9(2): 299–319.
Couper-Kuhlen, Elizabeth & Etelämäki, Marja. 2015. Nominated actions and their targeted agents in Finnish conversational directives. Journal of Pragmatics 78: 7–24.
Coussé, Evie & Oosterhof, Albert. 2012. Het imperativische participium in het Nederlands: Vorm, betekenis en gebruik [The imperatival participle in Dutch: Form, meaning and use]. Nederlandse Taalkunde 17(1): 26–55.
Craven, Alexandra & Potter, Jonathan. 2010. Directives: Entitlement and contingency in action. Discourse Studies 12(4): 419–442.
Curl, Traci S. & Drew, Paul. 2008. Contingency and action: A comparison of two forms of requesting. Research on Language and Social Interaction 41(2): 129–153.
Dancygier, Barbara & Sweetser, Eve. 2005. Mental Spaces in Grammar. Conditional Constructions. Cambridge: CUP.
De Clerck, Bernard. 2006. The Imperative in English. A Corpus-based, Pragmatic Analysis. PhD dissertation, Ghent University.
De Rycker, Teun. 1990. Imperative Subtypes in Conversational British English. An Empirical Investigation. PhD dissertation, University of Antwerp.
Devos, Maud & Van Olmen, Daniël. 2013. Describing and explaining the variation of Bantu imperatives and prohibitives. Studies in Language 37(1): 1–57.
Dobrushina, Nina. 2008. Imperatives in conditional and concessive subordinate clauses. In Subordination and Coordination Strategies in North Asian Languages [Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 300], Edward J. Vajda (ed.), 123–141. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Duinhoven, A. M. 1995.
Had gebeld! De irreële imperatief (Had gebeld! The irrealis imperative). Tijdschrift voor Nederlandse Taal- en Letterkunde 111(4): 346–364.
Ervin-Tripp, Susan. 1976. Is sybil there? The structure of some American English directives. Language in Society 5(1): 25–66.
Fortuin, Egbert. 2008. Polisemija imperativa v russkom jazyke (Imperative polysemy in Russian). Voprosy jazykoznanija 1: 3–24.
Fortuin, Egbert & Boogaart, Ronny. 2009. Imperative as conditional: From constructional to compositional semantics. Cognitive Linguistics 20(4): 641–673.
Franke, Michael. 2008. Pseudo-imperatives and other cases of conditional conjunction and conjunctive disjunction. In ‘Subordination’ Versus ‘Coordination’ in Sentence and Text. A Cross-Linguistic Perspective [Studies in Language Companion Series 98], Cathrine Fabricius-Hansen & Wiebke Ramm (eds), 255–279. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Fretheim, Thorstein & Van Dommelen, Wim A. 2012. A pragmatic perspective on the phonological values of utterance-final boundary tones in East Norwegian intonation. The Linguistic Review 29(4): 663–677.
Fries, Norbert. 1983. Studien zum frei verwendeten Infinitiv und zu verwandten Erscheinungen (Studies on the Independently Used Infinitive and on Related Phenomena). Tübingen: Narr.
Gärtner, Hans-Martin. 2013. Infinite Hauptsatzstrukturen (Non-finite main clauses structures). In Satztypen des Deutschen (
The Sentence Types of German
), Jörg Meibauer, Markus Steinbach & Hans Altmann (eds), 202–231. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Goodwin, Marjorie Harness & Cekaite, Asta. 2013. Calibration in directive/ response sequences in family interaction. Journal of Pragmatics 46: 122-138.
Grimm, Jacob. 1898. Deutsche Grammatik. Vierter Theil (German Grammar. Part Four). Gütersloh: Bertelsmann.
Gronas, Mikhail. 2006. The origin of the Russian historical imperative. Russian Linguistics 30(1): 89–101.
Han, Chung-hye. 2000. The Structure and Interpretation of Imperatives. Mood and Force in Universal Grammar. New York NY: Garland.
Han, Chung-hye & Lee, Chunmin. 2007. On negative imperatives in Korean. Linguistic Inquiry 38(2): 373–395.
Harms, Phillip L. 1994. Epena Pedee Syntax. Arlington TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics and University of Texas at Arlington.
Heath, Jeffrey. 1984. Functional Grammar of Nunggubuyu. Canberra: Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies.
Heinemann, Trine. 2006. “Will you or can’t you?”: Displaying entitlement in interrogative requests. Journal of Pragmatics 38(7): 1081–1104.
. 2012.
Gut durchlesen! Der deutsche Imperativ und seine funktionalen Synonyme: Ein Vergleich mit dem Finnischen (Gut durchlesen! The German infinitive and its functional synonyms: A comparison with Finnish). Deutsche Sprache 12(1): 32–56.
. 2013. Eigenschaften von direktiven Partizipien im Deutschen (Properties of directive participles in German). Deutsche Sprache 13(4): 313–334.
. 2016. When terminology matters: The imperative as a comparative concept. Linguistics 54(1): 119–148.
Jucker, Andreas H. 2011. Positive and negative face as descriptive categories in the history of English. Journal of Historical Pragmatics 12(1–2): 178–197.
Kasanga, Luanga A. 2006. Requests in a South African variety of English. World Englishes 25(1): 65–89.
Kaufmann, Magdalena & Poschmann, Claudia. 2013. Embedded imperatives: Empirical evidence from colloquial German. Language 89(3): 619–637.
Kehayov, Petar, Lindström, Liina & Niit, Ellen. 2011. Imperative in interrogatives in Estonian (Kihnu), Latvian and Livonian. Linguistica Uralica 47(2): 81–93.
Kimps, Ditte & Davidse, Kristin. 2008. Illocutionary force and conduciveness in imperative constant polarity tag questions: A typology. Text & Talk 28(6): 699–722.
Kirsner, Robert S. 2003. On the interaction of the Dutch pragmatic particles hoor and hè with the imperative and infinitivus pro imperativo. In Usage-based Approaches to Dutch. Lexicon, Grammar, Discourse, Arie Verhagen & Jeroen van de Weijer (eds), 59 –96. Utrecht: LOT.
Kohnen, Thomas. 2004. “Let mee bee so bold to request you to tell mee”: Constructions with let me and the history of English directives. Journal of Historical Pragmatics 5(1): 159–173.
König, Ekkehard & Siemund, Peter. 2007. Speech act distinctions in syntax. In Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Timothy Shopen (ed.), 276–324. Cambridge: CUP.
Koskinen, Päivi. 1998. Features and Categories. Non-finite Constructions in Finnish. PhD dissertation, University of Toronto.
Laury, Ritva. 2012. Syntactically non-integrated Finnish jos ‘if’-conditional clauses as directives. Discourse Processes 49(3–4): 213–242.
Márquez-Reiter, Rosina. 2000. Linguistic Politeness in Britain and Uruguay. A Contrastive Study of Requests and Apologies [Pragmatics & Beyond New Series 83]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Matsumoto, Yoshiko. 1988. Reexamination of the universality of face. Journal of Pragmatics 12(4): 403–426.
Mauri, Caterina & Sansò, Andrea. 2011. How directive constructions emerge: Grammaticalization, constructionalization, cooptation. Journal of Pragmatics 43: 3489–3521.
. 2012. The reality status of directives and its coding across languages. Language Sciences 34(2): 147–170.
Medeiros, David J. 2015. Embedded ancient Greek imperatives: A feature transfer analysis. Syntax 18(2): 124–156.
Miestamo, Matti. 2005. Standard Negation. The Negation of Declarative Verbal Main Clauses in a Typological Perspective. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Mondada, Lorenza. 2011. The situated organisation of directives in French: Imperatives and action coordination in video games. Nottingham French Studies 50(2): 19–50.
Nuyts, Jan, Byloo, Pieter, Diepeveen, Janneke. 2010. On deontic modality, directivity, and mood: The case of Dutch mogen and moeten
. Journal of Pragmatics 42: 16–34.
Ogiermann, Eva. 2009. Politeness and in-directness across cultures: A comparison of English, German, Polish and Russian requests. Journal of Politeness Research: Language, Behaviour, Culture 5(2): 189–216.
Oppenrieder, Wilhelm. 1989. Selbständige Verb-Letzt-Sätze: Ihr Platz im Satzmodussystem und ihre intonatorische Kennzeichnung (Independent verb-last sentences: Their place in the system of sentence types and their intonational marking). In Zur Intonation von Modus und Fokus im Deutschen (
On the Intonation of Mood and Focus in German
), Hans Altmann, Anton Batliner & Wilhelm Oppenrieder (eds), 163–244. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
Panther, Klaus-Uwe & Thornburg, Linda L. 2003. Metonymies as natural inference and activation schemas: The case of dependent clauses as independent speech acts. In Metonymy and Pragmatic Inferencing [Pragmatics & Beyond New Series 113], Klaus-Uwe Panther & Linda L. Thornburg (eds), 127–147. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
. 2011. Emotion and desire in independent complement clauses: A case-study in German. In Converging and Diverging Tendencies in Cognitive Linguistics [Human Cognitive Processing 32], Mario Brdar & Milena Žic Fuchs (eds), 87–114. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Pennock-Speck, Barry & Fuster-Márquez, Miguel. 2014. Imperatives in voice-overs in British TV commercials: ‘Get this, buy that, taste the other’. Discourse & Communication 8(4): 411–426.
Pérez Hernández, Lorena & Ruiz de Mendoza, Francisco José. 2002. Grounding, semantic motivation, and conceptual interaction in directive speech acts. Journal of Pragmatics 34(3): 259–284.
Petzell, Erik Magnusson. 2013. Relative inversion and non-verb-initial imperatives in Early Modern Swedish. Nordic Journal of Linguistics 36(1): 27–55.
Potsdam, Eric. 2010. VSO word order in Malagasy imperatives. In Austronesian and Theoretical Linguistics [Linguistik Aktuell/Linguistics Today 168], Raphael Mercado, Eric Potsdam & Lisa deMena Travis (eds), 231–248. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Proeme, Henk. 1984. Over de Nederlandse imperativus (About the Dutch imperative). Forum der Letteren 25(4): 241–258.
Rooryck, Johan & Postma, Gertjan. 2007. On participal imperatives. In Imperative Clauses in Generative Grammar. Studies in Honour of Frits Beukema [Linguistik Aktuell/Linguistics Today 103], Wim van der Wurff (ed.), 273–296. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Rossi, Giovanni. 2012. Bilateral and unilateral requests: The use of imperatives and mi X? interrogatives in Italian. Discourse Processes 49(5): 426–458.
. 2014. When do people not use language to make requests? In Requesting in Social Interaction [Studies in Language and Social Interaction 26], Paul Drew & Elizabeth Couper-Kuhlen (eds), 303–334. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Rue, Yong-Ju, & Zhang, Grace. 2008. Request Strategies. A Comparative Study in Mandarin Chinese and Korean [Pragmatics & Beyond New Series 177]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Sadock, Jerrold M. & Zwicky, Arnold M. 1985. Speech act distinctions in syntax. In Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Vol. I: Clause Structure, Timothy Shopen (ed.), 155–196. Cambridge: CUP.
Schegloff, Emanuel. A. 2007. Sequence Organization in Interaction. A Primer in Conversation Analysis. Cambridge: CUP.
Schwager, Magdalena. 2011. Imperatives and tense. In Tense Across Languages, Renata Musan & Monika Rathert (eds), 37–58. Berlin: De Gruyter.ds), 37–58. Be
Stefanowitsch, Anatol & Gries, Stefan Th. 2003. Collostructions: Investigating the interaction of words and constructions. International Journal of Corpus Linguistics 8(2): 209–243.
Takahashi, Hidemitsu. 2012. A Cognitive Linguistic Analysis of the English Imperative. With Special Attention to Japanese Imperatives [Human Cognitive Processing 35]. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
. 2014. A usage-based analysis of indirect directives in English (1): A preliminary quantitative survey. The Annual Report on Cultural Science 143: 99–135.
. 2015. A usage-based analysis of indirect directives in English (3): I wonder if you
. Journal of the Graduate School of Letters, Hokkaido University 10: 27–40.
Thornburg, Linda L. & Panther, Klaus-Uwe. 1997. Speech act metonymies. In Discourse and Perspective in Cognitive Linguistics [Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 151], Wolf-Andreas Liebert, Gisela Redeker & Linda R. Waugh (eds), 205–219. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Tommola, Hannu. 2010. Mood in Finnish. In Mood in the Languages of Europe [Studies in Language Companion Series 120], Björn Rothstein & Rolf Thieroff (eds), 511–527. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Trosborg, Anna. 1995. Statutes and contracts: An analysis of legal speech acts in the English language of the law. Journal of Pragmatics 23(1): 31–53.
Truckenbrodt, Hubert. 2013. Selbständige Verb-Letzt-Sätze (Independent verb-last sentences). In Satztypen des Deutschen (The Sentence Types of German), Jörg Meibauer, Markus Steinbach & Hans Altmann (eds), 232–246. Berlin: de Gruyter.
Tyurikova, Yevgeniya. 2008. Expression of Politeness/Impoliteness via the Aspectual Forms in the Imperative in Russian. PhD dissertation, Ohio State University.
van der Auwera, Johan. 2006a. Imperatives. In Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, Keith Brown (ed.), 565–567. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
van der Auwera, Johan & Devos, Maud. 2012. Irrealis in positive imperatives and in prohibitives. Language Sciences 34(2): 171–183.
van der Auwera, Johan, Dobrushina, Nina & Goussev, Valentin. 2004. A semantic map for imperative-hortative. In Contrastive Analysis in Language. Identifying Linguistic Units of Comparison, Dominique Willems, Bart Defrancq, Timothy Colleman & Dirk Noël (eds), 44–66. New York NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
. 2005. Imperative-hortative systems. In The World Atlas of Language Structures, Martin Haspelmath, Matthew S. Dryer, David Gil & Bernard Comrie (eds), 294–297. Oxford: OUP.
van der Auwera, Johan & Lejeune, Ludo. 2005a. The morphological imperative. In The World Atlas of Language Structures, Martin Haspelmath, Matthew S. Dryer, David Gil & Bernard Comrie (eds), 286–289. Oxford: OUP.
. 2005b. The prohibitive. In The World Atlas of Language Structures, Martin Haspelmath, Matthew S. Dryer, David Gil & Bernard Comrie (eds), 290–293. Oxford: OUP.
van der Auwera, Johan, Malchukov, Andrej & Schalley, Ewa. 2009. Thoughts on (im)perfective imperatives. In Form and Function in Language Research. Papers in Honour of Christian Lehmann, Johannes Helmbrecht, Yoko Nishina, Yong-Min Shin, Stavros Skopeteas & Elisabeth Verhoeven (eds), 93–106. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
van der Auwera, Johan & Zamorano Aguilar, Alfonso. 2016. The history of modality and mood. In The Oxford Handbook of Modality and Mood, Jan Nuyts & Johan van der Auwera (eds). Oxford: OUP.
van der Wurff, Wim. 2007. Imperative clauses in generative grammar: An introduction. In Imperative Clauses in Generative Grammar. Studies in Honour of Frits Beukema [Linguistik Aktuell/Linguistics Today 103], Wim van der Wurff (ed.), 1–94. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Van Olmen, Daniël. 2010. Typology meets usage: The case of the prohibitive infinitive in Dutch. Folia Linguistica 44(2): 471–508.
. 2011a. Review of Aikhenvald’s (2010) Imperatives and Commands
. Linguistic Typology 15(3): 670–680.
. 2011b. The Imperative in English and Dutch: A Functional Analysis in Comparable and Parallel Corpora. PhD dissertation, University of Antwerp.
. 2013. De imperatief in de verleden tijd (The imperative in the past tense). Nederlandse Taalkunde 18(3): 253–267.
. Forthcoming. Reproachatives and imperatives. Linguistics.
. 2014. Review of Takahashi’s (2012). A Cognitive Linguistic Analysis of the English Imperative
. With Special Reference to Japanese Imperatives. Linguistics 52(3): 864–869.
Velea, Adina I. 2013. Imperatives and commitments in Romanian academic meeting interactions. Pragmatics 23(3): 545–564.
Weuster, Edith. 1983. Nicht-eingebettete Satztypen mit Verb-Endstellung im Deutschen (Non-embedded sentence types with the verb in final position in German). In Zur Wortstellungsproblematik im Deutschen (
On the Word Order Problem in German
), Edith Weuster & Klaus Olszok (eds), 7–87. Tübingen: Narr.
Winkler, Eberhard. 1989. Der Satzmodus‚ Imperativsatz‘ im Deutschen und Finnischen (The Imperative Sentence Type in Germand and Finnish). Tübingen: Niemeyer.
Zanuttini, Raffaella. 2008. Encoding the addressee in syntax: Evidence from English imperative subjects. Natural Language & Linguistic Theory 26(1): 185–218.
Cited by (4)
Cited by four other publications
Van Olmen, Daniël
de Hoop, Helen & Gijs Mulder
2022. Claiming common ground with utterance-final particle hoor in Dutch. Linguistics in the Netherlands 39 ► pp. 88 ff.
Kochańska, Agata
Geka, Vassiliki, Sophia Marmaridou & Kiki Nikiforidou
2020. Dialogic constructions and discourse units:. Review of Cognitive Linguistics 18:2 ► pp. 480 ff.
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 3 december 2025. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.
