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The ‘say’ strategy for ordinal numerals in East Caucasian

Conflicting evidence on the evolution of a rare morphosyntactic pattern

ORCiD logo with link | Linguistic Convergence Laboratory HSE University
 | Independent researcher
Published online: 22 January 2026
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/sl.24077.nas
Abstract
Many East Caucasian languages form ordinal numerals by means of a participle form of the verb ‘say’. This way of ordinal formation, which we refer to as the ‘say’ strategy, is cross-linguistically rare. In this paper we analyze the genealogical and areal distribution of the ‘say’ strategy within the family. We argue that this way of forming ordinals spread due to a combination of genealogical and areal factors. More precisely, we argue that the ‘say’ strategy is an instance of shared grammaticalization that has emerged on the proto-level and has then been renewed multiple times due to language contact. In the languages that are either not in contact with the other languages of the family or are in active contact with genealogically unrelated languages, the ordinal marker has lost the synchronic connection to ‘say’ or perhaps was never connected to it.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Evidence for grammaticalization
    • 2.1Ordinal numerals are not regular relative clauses
    • 2.2The phonetic erosion of the participle of ‘say’
  • 3.The ‘say’ strategy from the genealogical point of view
    • 3.1Avar
    • 3.2Andic languages
    • 3.3Tsezic languages
    • 3.4Lezgic languages and Khinalug
    • 3.5Dargic and Lak
    • 3.6Nakh languages
  • 4.Accounting for the genealogical and areal scope of the ‘say’ strategy
    • 4.1Possible diachronic scenarios
    • 4.2The proposal: Inherited pattern, supported by active language contact
  • 5.Conclusion and implications for the theory of grammaticalization
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • Abbreviations
  • References
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