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Article published In: Studies in Language
Vol. 50:1 (2026) ► pp.109–159

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Evolutionary pathways between applicative, causative, and middle

ORCiD logo with link | Dartmouth College
ORCiD logo with link | Universität Bern
Published online: 26 August 2025
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/sl.24058.pet
Abstract
An infrequently attested pattern of isomorphism between markers of valence-affecting constructions involves overlap between causatives and applicatives, with a transitivizing function, and middles, which are detransitivizing. Such synchronic overlap must be due to some feature of the development of the constructions; however, so far there has been little detailed argumentation for directionality in such cases. We consider an instance of this pattern in the South Central Tibeto-Burman languages. The representation of multiple stages of the phenomena allows us to posit directionality and motivations for the evolutionary pathways involved. Here, the source morphology developed into a comitative applicative; in some languages causative meanings emerged, and in others, the construction developed an array of middle meanings via a portative applicative bridging context. The study provides new evidence for how patterns may arise in which the same morphology marks both causative or applicative constructions, on the one hand, and middles, on the other.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Applicatives, causatives, and middles
  • 3.Distribution of the constructions within South Central Tibeto-Burman
    • 3.1Southwestern South Central Tibeto-Burman
      • 3.1.1Khumi
      • 3.1.2Rengmitca
      • 3.1.3Other Southwestern South Central Tibeto-Burman languages
    • 3.2Southeastern South Central Tibeto-Burman languages
      • 3.2.1Hyow
      • 3.2.2Daai
      • 3.2.3Other Southeastern South Central Tibeto-Burman languages
      • 3.2.4Summary
  • 4.Critical review of research on relevant grammaticalization paths
    • 4.1Developments from applicative and causative to middle
      • 4.1.1From applicative to middle
      • 4.1.2From causative to middle
    • 4.2Developments from causative to applicative
    • 4.3Developments from applicative to causative
    • 4.4Developments from middle (to applicative) to causative
    • 4.5Developments from middle to applicative
    • 4.6Summary
  • 5.The proposed evolutions
  • 6.Concluding remarks
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • Abbreviations
  • References
References (78)
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