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In:Understanding Language and Cognition through Bilingualism: In honor of Ellen Bialystok
Edited by Gigi Luk, John A.E. Anderson and John G. Grundy
[Studies in Bilingualism 64] 2023
► pp. 38–67

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Chapter 3
Defining bilingualism as a continuum

Some tools and consequences for the study of bilingual mind and brain effects

 | UiT the Arctic University of Norway | Universidad Nebrija
 | UiT the Arctic University of Norway
 | UiT the Arctic University of Norway
 | Universidad Nebrija | UiT the Arctic University of Norway
 | UiT the Arctic University of Norway
 | King’s College London
Published online: 6 June 2023
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/sibil.64.03rot
Abstract
The measurement of bilingualism is complex but essential for (psycho)linguistic, cognitive and neural research. In addition to the conventional group comparison approach, namely comparing monolinguals to bilinguals, recent research has adopted continuous or multi-dimensional approaches. The aim of this chapter is to review a series of tools, including self-report usage and proficiency measures used in the literature. These tools were used with samples across the lifespan in North America and Europe. We further examine the aspects of bilingualism extracted from these tools. Finally, we outline the limitations of existing bilingual measurement tools and the need for researchers to justify the choice of each tool. Importantly, we advocate for taking a more nuanced understanding of bilingualism beyond individual usage and consider this experience as fluid, continuous rather than categorical.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.The Bilingual Language Experience Calculator (BiLEC)
    • 2.1What is it?
    • 2.2How is it measured?
    • 2.3Why is it used?
    • 2.4How has it been used?
    • 2.5What are some limitations?
  • 3.The Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q)
    • 3.1What is it?
    • 3.2How is it measured?
    • 3.3Why is it used?
    • 3.4How has it been used?
    • 3.5What are some limitations?
  • 4.Entropy- a measure of social (language) interaction and language maintenance
    • 4.1What is it?
    • 4.2How is it measured?
    • 4.3Why is it used?
    • 4.4How has it been used?
    • 4.5What are some limitations?
  • 5.The Language and Social Background Questionnaire (LSBQ)
    • 5.1What is it?
    • 5.2How is it measured?
    • 5.3Why is it used?
    • 5.4How has it been used?
    • 5.5What are some limitations?
  • 6.The Bilingual Language Profile (BLP)
    • 6.1What is it?
    • 6.2How is it measured?
    • 6.3Why is it used?
    • 6.4How has it been used?
    • 6.5What are some limitations?
  • 7.Conclusion
  • Note
  • References
References (108)
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Hržica, Gordana, Sara Košutar & Nada Poropat Jeletić
2024. The relationship between self-assessment of language proficiency and measures of lexical diversity and syntactic complexity: evidence from bilingual speakers of Italian in Croatia. Frontiers in Communication 9 DOI logo
Martynova, Maria, Yulia Zuban, Natalia Gagarina & Luka Szucsich
2024. Use of Embedded Clauses in Heritage and Monolingual Russian. Languages 9:5 ► pp. 157 ff. DOI logo
Neveu, Anne & Tamar H. Gollan
2024. Predicting naming scores from language history: A little immersion goes a long way, and self-rated proficiency matters more than percent use. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 27:5 ► pp. 1008 ff. DOI logo
Tomić, Aleksandra, Yulia Rodina, Fatih Bayram & Cécile De Cat
2023. Documenting heritage language experience using questionnaires. Frontiers in Psychology 14 DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 1 december 2025. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.

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