Cover not available

In:Bilingual Cognition and Language: The state of the science across its subfields
Edited by David Miller, Fatih Bayram, Jason Rothman and Ludovica Serratrice
[Studies in Bilingualism 54] 2018
► pp. 283–306

Get fulltext from our e-platform
JBE logo with link
PDF logo with download linkDownload Book PDF
EPUB logo with download linkDownload Book EPUB
authorization required

Chapter 13
Bilingualism and executive function

What’s the connection?

 | York University
Published online: 8 March 2018
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/sibil.54.13bia
Abstract
This chapter examines the idea that much of the confusion and contradictory evidence about the relation between bilingualism and executive function can be traced to an over-simplification of the two main terms. Using more nuanced definitions for “bilingualism” and “executive function”, research examining the effect of bilingualism on cognition in infancy, childhood, and adulthood is reviewed. The sum of the evidence is then used to attempt to extract a common “mechanism” for the diverse effects that is consistent with a broader definition of the main concepts of bilingualism and executive function. The conclusion is that a continuous notion of “executive attention” in which there is a linear relation between degree of bilingualism and degree of executive function demands provides a good fit with the empirical evidence and a plausible explanation for the modifications found in the brain and behavior of bilinguals across the lifespan.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Defining the terms
  • 3.Research with infants
  • 4.Cognitive processing in childhood
  • 5.Effects of bilingualism in adulthood
  • 6. The mechanism of cognitive change in bilingualism
  • Acknowledgements
  • References
References (107)
References
Adesope, O. O., Lavin, T., Thompson, T., & Ungerleider, C. (2010). A systematic review and meta-analysis of the cognitive correlates of bilingualism. Review of Educational Research, 80, 207–245. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Anton, E., Dunabeitia, J. A., Estevez, A., Hernandez, J. A., Castillo, A., Fuentes, L. J., … Carreiras, M. (2014). Is there a bilingual advantage in the ANT task? Evidence from children. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 398. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ayneto, A., & Sebastian-Galles, N. (2017). The influence of bilingualism on the preference for the mouth region of dynamic faces. Developmental Science, 20, e12446. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bak, T. H. (2015). Beyond a simple “yes” and “no”: A commentary on Paap et al. “Bilingual advantages in executive functioning either do not exist or are restricted to very specific and undetermined circumstances”. Cortex, 73, 332–333. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Barac, R., Bialystok, E., Castro, D. C., & Sanchez, M. (2014). The cognitive development of young dual language learners: A critical review. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 29, 699–714. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Barac, R., Moreno, S., & Bialystok, E. (2016). Behavioral and electrophysiological differences in executive control between monolingual and bilingual children. Child Development, 87, 1277–1290. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ben-Zeev, S. (1977). The influence of bilingualism on cognitive strategy and cognitive development. Child Development, 48, 1009–1018. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bialystok, E. (1986). Factors in the growth of linguistic awareness. Child Development, 57, 498–510. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1988). Levels of bilingualism and levels of linguistic awareness. Developmental Psychology, 24, 560–567. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1999). Cognitive complexity and attentional control in the bilingual mind. Child Development, 70, 636–644. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2006). Effect of bilingualism and computer video game experience on the Simon task. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60, 68–79. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2016). The signal and the noise: Finding the pattern in human behavior. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 6, 517–534. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Abutalebi, J., Bak, T. H., Burke, D. M., & Kroll, J. F. (2016). Aging in two languages: Implications for public health. Ageing Research Reviews, 27, 56–60. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Barac, R. (2012). Emerging bilingualism: Dissociating advantages for metalinguistic awareness and executive control. Cognition, 122, 67–73. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Barac, R., Blaye, A., & Poulin-Dubois, D. (2010a). Word mapping and executive functioning in young monolingual and bilingual children. Journal of Cognition and Development, 11, 485–508. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Grady, C., Chau, W., Ishii, R., Gunji, A., & Pantev, C. (2005). Effect of bilingualism on cognitive control in the Simon task: Evidence from MEG. Neuroimage, 24, 40–49. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Green, D. W., & Gollan, T. H. (2009). Bilingual minds. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 10, 89–129. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Klein, R., & Viswanathan, M. (2004). Bilingualism, aging, and cognitive control: Evidence from the Simon task. Psychology and Aging, 19, 290–303. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Luk, G. (2008). Cognitive control and lexical access in younger and older bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory and Cognition, 35, 828–828. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Ryan, J. (2006). Executive control in a modified antisaccade task: Effects of aging and bilingualism. Journal of Experimental Psychology-Learning Memory and Cognition, 32, 1341–1354. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Hawrylewicz, K., Wiseheart, M., & Toplak, M. (2017). Interaction of bilingualism and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity disorder in young adults. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 20, 588–601. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., & Martin, M. M. (2004). Attention and inhibition in bilingual children: Evidence from the dimensional change card sort task. Developmental Science, 7, 325–339. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Martin, M. M., & Viswanathan, M. (2005). Bilingualism across the lifespan: The rise and fall of inhibitory control. International Journal of Bilingualism, 9, 103–119. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Blumenfeld, H. K., & Marian, V. (2011). Bilingualism influences inhibitory control in auditory comprehension. Cognition, 118, 245–257. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bonifacci, P., Giombini, L., Bellocchi, S., & Contento, S. (2011). Speed of processing, anticipation, inhibition and working memory in bilinguals. Developmental Science, 14, 256–269. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Brito, N., & Barr, R. (2012). Influence of bilingualism on memory generalization during infancy. Developmental Science, 15, 812–816. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2014). Flexible memory retrieval in bilingual 6-month-old infants. Developmental Psychobiology, 56, 1156–1163. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Brito, N. H., Grenell, A., & Barr, R. (2014). Specificity of the bilingual advantage for memory: Examining recognition, generalization, and working memory in monolingual, bilingual, and trilingual toddlers. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1369. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Brito, N. H., Sebastian-Galles, N., & Barr, R. (2015). Differences in language exposure and its effects on memory flexibility in monolingual, bilingual, and trilingual infants. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18, 670–682. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Calabria, M., Hernandez, M., Martin, C. D., & Costa, A. (2011). When the tail counts: the advantage of bilingualism through the ex-gaussian distribution analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 250. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Carlson, S. M., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2008). Bilingual experience and executive functioning in young children. Developmental Science, 11, 282–298. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Colzato, L. S., Bajo, M. T., van den Wildenberg, W., Paolieri, D., Nieuwenhuis, S., La Heij, W., & Hommel, B. (2008). How does bilingualism improve executive control? A comparison of active and reactive inhibition mechanisms. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 34, 302–312. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Costa, A., Hernandez, A., Costa-Faidella, J., & Sebastian-Galles, N. (2009). On the bilingual advantage in conflict processing: Now you see it, now you don’t. Cognition, 113, 135–149. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Costa, A., Hernandez, M., & Sebastian-Galles, N. (2008). Bilingualism aids conflict resolution: evidence from the ANT task. Cognition, 106, 59–86. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Crivello, C., Kuzyk, O., Rodrigues, M., Friend, M., Zesiger, P., & Poulin-Dubois, D. (2016). The effects of bilingual growth on toddlers’ executive function. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 141, 121–132. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cummins, J. (1978). Bilingualism and the development of metalinguistic awareness. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 9, 131–149. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
de Bruin, A., Bak, T. H., & Della Sala, S. (2015). Examining the effects of active versus inactive bilingualism on executive control in a carefully matched non-immigrant sample. Journal of Memory and Language, 85, 15–26. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dunabeitia, J. A., Hernandez, J. A., Anton, E., Macizo, P., Estevez, A., Fuentes, L. J., & Carreiras, M. (2014). The inhibitory advantage in bilingual children revisited: Myth or reality? Experimental Psychology, 61, 234–251. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Engel de Abreu, P. M., Cruz-Santos, A., Tourinho, C. J., Martin, R., & Bialystok, E. (2012). Bilingualism enriches the poor: Enhanced cognitive control in low-income minority children. Psychological Science, 23, 1364–1371. .Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Engle, R. W., & Kane, M. J. (2004). Executive attention, working memory capacity, and a two-factor theory of cognitive control. In B. Ross (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 44, pp. 145–199). New York, NY: Elsevier.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Eriksen, B. A., Eriksen, C. W. (1974). Effects of noise letters upon identification of a target letter in a non- search task. Perception and Psychophysics, 16, 143–149. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Esposito, A. G., Baker-Ward, L., & Mueller, S. T. (2013). Interference suppression vs. response inhibition: An explanation for the absence of a bilingual advantage in preschoolers’ Stroop task performance. Cognitive Development, 28, 354–363. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Fan, J., McCandliss, B. D., Sommer, T., Raz, A., & Posner, M. I. (2002). Testing the efficiency andindependence of attentional networks. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 340–347. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Feldman, C., & Shen, M. (1971). Some language-related cognitive advantages of bilingual five-year-olds. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 118, 235–244. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Foy, J. G., & Mann, V. A. (2014). Bilingual children show advantages in nonverbal auditory executive function task. International Journal of Bilingualism, 18, 717–729. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gathercole, V. C., Thomas, E. M., Kennedy, I., Prys, C., Young, N., Vinas Guasch, N., … Jones, L. (2014). Does language dominance affect cognitive performance in bilinguals? Lifespan evidence from preschoolers through older adults on card sorting, Simon, and metalinguistic tasks. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 11. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Goral, M., Campanelli, L., & Spiro, A. (2015). Language dominance and inhibition abilities in bilingual older adults. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18, 79–89. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Green, D. W. (1998). Mental control of the bilingual lexico-semantic system. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1, 67–81. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Harrison, T. L., Shipstead, Z., Hicks, K. L., Hambrick, D. Z., Redick, T. S., & Engle, R. W. (2013). Working memory training may increase working memory capacity but not fluid intelligence. Psychological Science, 24, 2409–2419. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hayne, H. (2006). Age-related changes in infant memory retrieval: implications for knowledge transfer. In Y. Munakata & J. H. Johnson (Eds.), Processes of change in brain and cognitive development (Attention and Performance XXI, pp. 209–231). Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hilchey, M. D., & Klein, R. M. (2011). Are there bilingual advantages on nonlinguistic interference tasks? Implications for the plasticity of executive control processes. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 18, 625–658. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jaeggi, S. M., Buschkuehl, M., Shah, P., & Jonides, J. (2014). The role of individual differences in cognitive training and transfer. Memory & Cognition, 42(3), 464–480. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kalashnikova, M., & Mattock, K. (2014). Maturation of executive functioning skills in early sequential bilingualism. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 17, 111–123. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kalia, V., Wilbourn, M. P., & Ghio, K. (2014). Better early or late? Examining the influence of age of exposure and language proficiency on executive function in early and late bilinguals. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 26, 699–713. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kapa, L. L., & Colombo, J. (2013). Attentional control in early and later bilingual children. Cognitive Development, 28, 233–246. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kirk, N. W., Fiala, L., Scott-Brown, K. C., & Kempe, V. (2014). No evidence for reduced Simon cost in elderly bilinguals and bidialectals. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 26, 640–648. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kolb, B., Mychasiuk, R., Muhammad, A., Li, Y., Frost, D. O., & Gibb, R. (2012). Experience and the developing prefrontal cortex. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 109(Supplement 2), 17186–17193. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kousaie, S., & Phillips, N. A. (2012). Conflict monitoring and resolution: Are two languages better than one? Evidence from reaction time and event-related brain potentials. Brain Research, 1446, 71–90. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kousaie, S., Sheppard, C., Lemieux, M., Monetta, L., & Taler, V. (2014). Executive function and bilingualism in young and older adults. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 8, 250. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kovacs, A. M., & Mehler, J. (2009a). Cognitive gains in 7-month-old bilingual infants. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 106, 6556–6560. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2009b). Flexible learning of multiple speech structures in bilingual infants. Science, 325, 611–612. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kroll, J. F., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Understanding the consequences of bilingualism for language processing and cognition. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25, 497–514. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kroll, J. F., Dussias, P. E., Bice, K., & Perrotti, L. (2015). Bilingualism, mind, and brain. Annual Review of Linguistics, 1, 377–394. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Luk, G. (2008). The anatomy of the bilingual influence on cognition: Levels of functional use and proficiency of language. Unpublished PhD dissertation, York University, Toronto, Canada.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Luk, G., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Bilingualism is not a categorical variable: Interaction between language proficiency and usage. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25, 605–621. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Martin-Rhee, M. M., & Bialystok, E. (2008). The development of two types of inhibitory control in monolingual and bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 11, 81–93. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Marzecova, A., Asanowicz, D., Kriva, L., & Wodniecka, Z. (2013). The effects of bilingualism on efficiency and lateralization of attentional networks. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 16, 608–623. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mezzacappa, E. (2004). Alerting, orienting, and executive attention: Developmental properties and sociodemographic correlates in an epidemiological sample of young, urban children. Child Development, 75, 1373–1386. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Miyake, A., Friedman, N. P., Emerson, M. J., Witzki, A. H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “Frontal Lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41, 49–100. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mor, B., Yitzhaki-Amsalem, S., & Prior, A. (2015). The joint effect of bilingualism and ADHD on executive functions. Journal of Attention Disorders, 19, 527–541. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Morales, J., Calvo, A., & Bialystok, E. (2013). Working memory development in monolingual and bilingual children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 114, 187–202. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Morton, J. P., & Harper, S. N. (2007). What did Simon say? Revisiting the bilingual advantage. Developmental Science, 10, 719–726. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Okanda, M., Moriguchi, Y., & Itakura, S. (2010). Language and cognitive shifting: evidence from young monolingual and bilingual children. Psychological Report, 107, 68–78. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Paap, K. R., & Greenberg, Z. I. (2013). There is no coherent evidence for a bilingual advantage in executive processing. Cognitive Psychology, 66, 232–258. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Paap, K. R., Johnson, H. A., & Sawi, O. (2015). Bilingual advantages in executive functioning either do not exist or are restricted to very specific and undetermined circumstances. Cortex, 69, 265–278. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Paap, K. R., & Sawi, O. (2014). Bilingual advantages in executive functioning: problems in convergent validity, discriminant validity, and the identification of the theoretical constructs. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 962. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Peal, E., & Lambert, W. (1962). The relation of bilingualism to intelligence. Psychological Monographs, 76(Whole No. 546), 1–23. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Poarch, G. J., & Bialystok, E. (2015). Bilingualism as a model for multitasking. Developmental Review, 35, 113–124. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Poarch, G. J., & Van Hell, J. G. (2012). Executive functions and inhibitory control in multilingual children: Evidence from second language learners, bilinguals, and trilinguals. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 113, 535–551. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pons, F., Bosch, L., & Lewkowicz, D. J. (2015). Bilingualism modulates infants’ selective attention to the mouth of a talking face. Psychological Science, 26, 490–498. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Prior, A., & Gollan, T. H. (2013). The elusive link between language control and executive control: A case of limited transfer. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25, 622–645. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Prior, A., & Macwhinney, B. (2010). A bilingual advantage in task switching. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 13, 253–262. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Riggs, N. R., Shin, H. S., Unger, J. B., Spruijt-Metz, D., & Pentz, M. A. (2014). Prospective associations between bilingualism and executive function in Latino children: sustained effects while controlling for biculturalism. Journal of Immigrant Minority Health, 16, 914–921. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rueda, M. R., Fan, J., McCandliss, B. D., Halparin, J. D., Gruber, D. B., Lercari, L. P., & Posner, M. I. (2004). Development of attentional networks in childhood. Neuropsychologia, 42, 1029–1040. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Salvatierra, J. L., & Rosselli, M. (2010). The effect of bilingualism and age on inhibitory control. International Journal of Bilingualism, 15, 26–37. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Scaltritti, M., Peressotti, F., & Miozzo, M. (2015). Bilingual advantage and language switch: What’s the linkage? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1–18. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schroeder, S. R., & Marian, V. (2012). A bilingual advantage for episodic memory in older adults. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 24, 591–601. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sebastian-Galles, N., Albareda-Castellot, B., Weikum, W. M., & Werker, J. F. (2012). A bilingual advantage in visual language discrimination in infancy. Psychological Science, 23, 994–999. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Shipstead, Z., Harrison, T. L., & Engle, R. W. (2015). Working memory capacity and the scope and control of attention. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 77, 1863–1880. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Singh, L., Fu, C. S., Rahman, A. A., Hameed, W. B., Sanmugam, S., Agarwal, P., … Gusto Researcg Team. (2015). Back to basics: A bilingual advantage in infant visual habituation. Child Development, 86, 294–302. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Singh, N., & Mishra, R. K. (2012). Does language proficiency modulate oculomotor control? Evidence from Hindi–English bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15, 771–781. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sorge, G., Toplak, M., & Bialystok, E. (2017). Interactions between levels of attention ability and levels of bilingualism in children’s executive functioning. Developmental Science, 20, e12408. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Soveri, A., Rodriguez-Fornells, A., & Laine, M. (2011). Is there a relationship between language switching and executive functions in bilingualism? Introducing a within group analysis approach. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 183. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Thomas-Sunesson, D., Hakuta, K., & Bialystok, E. (In press). Degree of bilingualism modifies executive control in Hispanic children in the US. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism.
Tran, C. D., Arredondo, M. M., & Yoshida, H. (2015). Differential effects of bilingualism and culture on early attention: A longitudinal study in the U.S., Argentina, and Vietnam. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 795. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Treccani, B., Argyri, E., Sorace, A., & Della Sala, S. (2009). Spatial negative priming in bilingualism. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 16, 320–327. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tse, C. S., & Altarriba, J. (2014). The relationship between language proficiency and attentional control in Cantonese-English bilingual children: Evidence from Simon, Simon switching, and working memory tasks. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 954. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tunmer, W. E., & Myhill, M. E. (1984). Metalinguistic awareness and bilingualism. In W. E. Tunmer, C. Pratt & M. L. Merriman (Eds.), Metalinguistic awareness in children (pp. 169–187). Berlin: Springer. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
von Bastian, C. C., Souza, A. S., & Gade, M. (2016). No evidence for bilingual cognitive advantages: A test of four hypotheses. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145, 246–258. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Weikum, W. M., Vouloumanos, A., Navarra, J., Soto-Faraco, S., Sebastian-Galles, N., & Werker, J. F. (2007). Visual language discrimination in infancy. Science, 316, 1159. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Yang, S., & Yang, H. (2016). Bilingual effects on deployment of the attention system in linguistically and culturally homogeneous children and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 146, 121–136. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Yang, S., Yang, H., & Lust, B. (2011). Early childhood bilingualism leads to advances in executive attention: Dissociating culture and language. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 14, 412–422. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Yoshida, H., Tran, D. N., Benitez, V., & Kuwabara, M. (2011). Inhibition and adjective learning in bilingual and monolingual children. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 210. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zelazo, P. D., Frye, D., & Rapus, T. (1996) An age-related dissociation between knowing rules and using them. Cognitive Development, 11, 37–63. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zhou, B., & Krott, A. (2016). Data trimming procedure can eliminate bilingual cognitive advantage. Psychonomics Bulletin and Review, 23, 1221–1230. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cited by (33)

Cited by 33 other publications

Lin, Wei-Lun, Chih-Chieh Chang & Yi-Ling Shih
2025. The relationships between balanced-bilingual proficiency, executive function, and rational thinking: a dissociative finding. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 28:3 ► pp. 308 ff. DOI logo
Skubic, Darija
2025. Preschool Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Slovenian as a Second Language. In Preučevanje otroške in mladinske književnosti, ► pp. 487 ff. DOI logo
Giambo, Debra A., Tunde Szecsi & Hasan Aydin
2024. Perceptions of Teachers and Spanish-English Speaking Adolescents on Bilingualism and Heritage Language Maintenance. The Educational Forum 88:1 ► pp. 63 ff. DOI logo
Gutiérrez-Fresneda, Raúl, Teresa Pozo Rico, María José García Tárraga & Elena Jiménez-Pérez
2024. Effect of the development of precursor skills for literacy in Spanish on learning to read in English. The Journal of Educational Research 117:5 ► pp. 284 ff. DOI logo
Hanini, Rawan, Laura Spinu, Yasaman Rafat & Anwar Alkhudidi
2024. Childhood Language Exposure. In The Phonetics and Phonology of Heritage Languages, ► pp. 237 ff. DOI logo
Intasao, Nujaree
2024. The potential trade-off between L3 Chinese proficiency and L1 Thai verbal fluency. International Journal of Multilingualism ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Siemund, Peter & Eliane Lorenz
2024. Multilingual advantages. In Multifaceted Multilingualism [Studies in Bilingualism, 66], ► pp. 123 ff. DOI logo
Siemund, Peter, Eliane Lorenz & Tugba Elif Toprak-Yildiz
2024. The impact of heritage language proficiency on English as an additional language: disentangling language and cognition. International Journal of Multilingualism 21:4 ► pp. 2131 ff. DOI logo
Abashidze, Dato, Angela Schmidt, Pavel Trofimovich & Julien Mercier
2023. Integration of visual context in early and late bilingual language processing: evidence from eye-tracking. Frontiers in Psychology 14 DOI logo
Grasso, Stephanie M., Alexandra L. Clark, Melissa Petersen & Sid O'Bryant
2023. Bilingual neurocognitive resiliency, vulnerability, and Alzheimer's disease biomarker correlates in Latino older adults enrolled in the Health and Aging Brain Study ‐ Health Disparities (HABS‐HD). Alzheimer's & Dementia: Diagnosis, Assessment & Disease Monitoring 15:4 DOI logo
Lorenz, Eliane, Tugba Elif Toprak-Yildiz & Peter Siemund
2023. Why are they so similar?. Pedagogical Linguistics 4:2 ► pp. 159 ff. DOI logo
Poulin-Dubois, Diane
2023. Bilingualism in development. In Understanding Language and Cognition through Bilingualism [Studies in Bilingualism, 64], ► pp. 142 ff. DOI logo
Sauvage, Jérémi, Nathalie Auger & Laurine Dalle
2023. Usages pédagogiques de pratiques numériques translangagières dans les classes de sciences. Lidil 67 DOI logo
Spinu, Laura
2023. Serial memory mechanisms in monolingual and bilingual speakers. International Journal of Bilingualism 27:4 ► pp. 397 ff. DOI logo
Tong, Ke, Yuan Ni Chan, Xiaoqin Cheng, Bobby Cheon, Michelle Ellefson, Restria Fauziana, Shengchuang Feng, Nastassja Fischer, Balázs Gulyás, Natalie Hoo, David Hung, Kastoori Kalaivanan, Christelle Langley, Kean Mun Lee, Li Ling Lee, Timothy Lee, Irene Melani, Nadhilla Melia, Jia Ying Pei, Lisha Raghani, Yoke Loo Sam, Peter Seow, John Suckling, Yan Fen Tan, Chew Lee Teo, Ryutaro Uchiyama, Hui Shan Yap, Georgios Christopoulos, Henriette Hendriks, Annabel Chen, Trevor Robbins, Barbara Sahakian, Zoe Kourtzi, Victoria Leong & Avanti Dey
2023. Study protocol: How does cognitive flexibility relate to other executive functions and learning in healthy young adults?. PLOS ONE 18:7 ► pp. e0286208 ff. DOI logo
Bender, Frauke
2022. Navigating Cultural Diversity with Intercultural Proficiency. In A Roadmap to Intercultural Proficiency [Diversity and Inclusion Research, ], ► pp. 55 ff. DOI logo
Román, Patricia & Irene Gómez-Gómez
2022. Changes in Native Sentence Processing Related to Bilingualism: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Psychology 13 DOI logo
Smith, Sara A. & Jessica Briggs Baffoe-Djan
2022. It takes two to make a thing go write: self-reported Spanish reading and writing skill and relationships with digit span and stroop task performance among Spanish-English bilinguals. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 25:1 ► pp. 272 ff. DOI logo
SMITH, Sara A., Sibylla LEON GUERRERO, Sarah SURRAIN & Gigi LUK
2022. Phonetic discrimination, phonological awareness, and pre-literacy skills in Spanish–English dual language preschoolers. Journal of Child Language 49:1 ► pp. 80 ff. DOI logo
Wagley, Neelima, Rebecca A. Marks, Lisa M. Bedore & Ioulia Kovelman
2022. Contributions of bilingual home environment and language proficiency on children’s Spanish–English reading outcomes. Child Development 93:4 ► pp. 881 ff. DOI logo
Bermejo, Vicente, Pilar Ester & Isabel Morales
2021. How the Language of Instruction Influences Mathematical Thinking Development in the First Years of Bilingual Schoolers. Frontiers in Psychology 12 DOI logo
Dewaele, Jean-Marc
2021. Multilingualism and trait emotional intelligence: an exploratory investigation. International Journal of Multilingualism 18:3 ► pp. 337 ff. DOI logo
Morlett Paredes, Alejandra, Amanda Gooding, Lidia Artiola i Fortuny, Monica Rivera Mindt, Paola Suárez, Travis M. Scott, Anne Heaton, Robert K. Heaton, Mariana Cherner & María J. Marquine
2021. The state of neuropsychological test norms for Spanish-speaking adults in the United States. The Clinical Neuropsychologist 35:2 ► pp. 236 ff. DOI logo
Borelli, María Teresa, Juana María Anguita Acero & Francisco Javier Sánchez-Verdejo Pérez
2020. The EMAS and Its Role in the ESL Instruction to Immigrants in England. In Handbook of Research on Bilingual and Intercultural Education [Advances in Educational Technologies and Instructional Design, ], ► pp. 71 ff. DOI logo
Butler, Yuko Goto
2020. Cognition and Young Learners’ Language Development. In Handbook of Early Language Education [Springer International Handbooks of Education, ], ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Butler, Yuko Goto
2022. Cognition and Young Learners’ Language Development. In Handbook of Early Language Education [Springer International Handbooks of Education, ], ► pp. 29 ff. DOI logo
Dávila-Montes, José & Lyon Rathbun
2020. La Perastories: cognitive and cultural alignment of narrative production by bilinguals in the U.S. – Mexican borderlands. Language and Intercultural Communication 20:3 ► pp. 240 ff. DOI logo
Filippi, Roberto, Andrea Ceccolini, Eva Periche-Tomas & Peter Bright
2020. Developmental trajectories of metacognitive processing and executive function from childhood to older age. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 73:11 ► pp. 1757 ff. DOI logo
Smith, Sara A., Stephanie R. Seitz, Kelly H. Koutnik, Meaghan Mckenna & Jorge N. Garcia
2020. The “work” of being a bilingual: Exploring effects of forced language switching on language production and stress level in a real-world setting. Applied Psycholinguistics 41:3 ► pp. 701 ff. DOI logo
Daubert, Emily N. & Geetha B. Ramani
2019. Math and Memory in Bilingual Preschoolers: The Relations Between Bilingualism, Working Memory, and Numerical Knowledge. Journal of Cognition and Development 20:3 ► pp. 314 ff. DOI logo
Ebert, Kerry Danahy, Diane Rak, Caitlyn M. Slawny & Louis Fogg
2019. Attention in Bilingual Children With Developmental Language Disorder. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 62:4 ► pp. 979 ff. DOI logo
Rothman, Jason, Jorge González Alonso & Eloi Puig-Mayenco
2019. Third Language Acquisition and Linguistic Transfer, DOI logo
Tokuhama-Espinosa, Tracey
2019. The Learning Sciences Framework in Educational Leadership. Frontiers in Education 4 DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 1 december 2025. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.

Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue