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In:Bilingual Cognition and Language: The state of the science across its subfields
Edited by David Miller, Fatih Bayram, Jason Rothman and Ludovica Serratrice
[Studies in Bilingualism 54] 2018
► pp. 251–280

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Chapter 12
Different situations, similar outcomes

Heritage grammars across the lifespan

 | Penn State University
 | University of Konstanz | UiT The Artic University of Norway
 | Texas Tech University
Published online: 8 March 2018
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/sibil.54.12put
Abstract
The rise of scientific inquiry focusing on bilingualism over the past few decades has also borne witness to an increase in the study of individuals and communities who speak a native language that is not the sociolinguistically dominant language of the environment in which they grew up. While it is common practice to refer to these diverse groups and individuals as “heritage speakers”, it is unclear whether it is appropriate to classify all of them under the same terminology. In this chapter, we take a closer look at three different groups: (i) children, (ii) young adults, and (iii) elderly, moribund bilinguals who have all been referred to as heritage speakers in the literature. After exploring aspects of phonological, (morpho)syntactic, and semantic/pragmatic developments, we show that a great deal of symmetry exists between them, thus justifying the cohesive, overarching label of “heritage speakers” to all three sub-groups. Finally, we outline what this broader definition of heritage speakers means for long-standing debates in the literature, such as those that concern the acquisition, development, and maintenance of the heritage grammar across the lifespan.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Child HS development
    • 2.1Phonology
    • 2.2(Morpho-)syntax
    • 2.3Interfaces with semantics and pragmatics
    • 2.4Section summary
  • 3.Adult HL bilingualism
    • 3.1Phonology
    • 3.2(Morpho-)syntax
    • 3.3 Interfaces with semantics and pragmatics
    • 3.4Section summary
  • 4.Moribund HL bilingualism
    • 4.1Phonology
    • 4.2(Morpho)-syntax
    • 4.3The interface with semantics and pragmatics
    • 4.4Section summary
  • 5.Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
References (135)
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Cited by (31)

Cited by 31 other publications

Callen, M. Cole
2025. Toward explaining variability in heritage varieties: Systematic patterns of differential object marking in adult heritage speakers of Spanish. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 28:2 ► pp. 357 ff. DOI logo
Klosinski, Robert & Katharina S. Schuhmann
2025. Avoiding (total) collapse. In Varieties of German in Contact Settings [Studies in Germanic Linguistics, 10], ► pp. 131 ff. DOI logo
Montrul, Silvina
2025. Intergenerational attrition: direct or reverse language transmission?. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 28:3 ► pp. 832 ff. DOI logo
Oliveira, Duarte
2025. The aspectual entailments of telicity markers in German: evidence from non-native and native speakers. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 28:3 ► pp. 613 ff. DOI logo
Rocker, Maike H.
2025. Language change came when our people were ready for it. In Varieties of German in Contact Settings [Studies in Germanic Linguistics, 10], ► pp. 62 ff. DOI logo
Thane, Patrick D.
2025. School, age, and exposure effects in the child heritage language acquisition of the Spanish volitional subjunctive. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 15:6 ► pp. 745 ff. DOI logo
Giannakou, Aretousa
2023. Anaphora resolution and age effects in Greek-Spanish bilingualism: Evidence from first-generation immigrants, heritage speakers, and L2 speakers. Lingua 292 ► pp. 103573 ff. DOI logo
Higby, Eve, Evelyn Gámez & Claudia Holguín Mendoza
2023. Challenging deficit frameworks in research on heritage language bilingualism. Applied Psycholinguistics 44:4 ► pp. 417 ff. DOI logo
van Baal, Yvonne
2023. Definiteness marking in American Norwegian: a unique pattern among the Scandinavian languages. The Journal of Comparative Germanic Linguistics 27:1 DOI logo
Dehé, Nicole & Tanja Kupisch
2022. Prepositional phrases and case in North American (heritage) Icelandic. Nordic Journal of Linguistics 45:3 ► pp. 254 ff. DOI logo
Natvig, David
2022. Variation and stability of American Norwegian /r/ in contact. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 12:6 ► pp. 816 ff. DOI logo
Sippola, Eeva
2022. Spanish contact influence in a Finnish heritage community in Misiones, Argentina. Nordic Journal of Linguistics 45:3 ► pp. 348 ff. DOI logo
Sopata, Aldona & Kamil Długosz
2022. The effects of language input on word order in German as a heritage and majority language. Language Acquisition 29:2 ► pp. 198 ff. DOI logo
Thane, Patrick, Michele Goldin, Abril Jimenez, Esther Hur, Julio Cesar Lopez Otero & Jennifer Austin
2022. Where we are and where we ought to be: The need for research-based assessments for dual language immersion learners. NABE Journal of Research and Practice 12:2 ► pp. 84 ff. DOI logo
Bayram, Fatih, Maki Kubota, Alicia Luque, Diego Pascual y Cabo & Jason Rothman
2021. You Can’t Fix What Is Not Broken: Contextualizing the Imbalance of Perceptions About Heritage Language Bilingualism. Frontiers in Education 6 DOI logo
D'Alessandro, Roberta, David Natvig & Michael T. Putnam
2021. Addressing Challenges in Formal Research on Moribund Heritage Languages: A Path Forward. Frontiers in Psychology 12 DOI logo
Marian, Viorica & Sayuri Hayakawa
2021. Measuring bilingualism: The quest for a “bilingualism quotient”. Applied Psycholinguistics 42:2 ► pp. 527 ff. DOI logo
Petersen, Jan Heegård, Gert Foget Hansen, Jacob Thøgersen & Karoline Kühl
2021. Linguistic Proficiency: A Quantitative Approach to Immigrant and Heritage Speakers of Danish . Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory 17:2 ► pp. 465 ff. DOI logo
Putnam, Michael T., Lara Schwarz & Andrew D. Hoffman
2021. Morphology of Heritage Languages. In The Cambridge Handbook of Heritage Languages and Linguistics, ► pp. 613 ff. DOI logo
Uygun, Serkan & Harald Clahsen
2021. Morphological processing in heritage speakers: A masked priming study on the Turkish aorist. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 24:3 ► pp. 415 ff. DOI logo
Bousquette, Joshua
2020. From Bidialectal to Bilingual. American Speech 95:4 ► pp. 485 ff. DOI logo
Bousquette, Joshua & Michael T. Putnam
2020. Redefining Language Death: Evidence From Moribund Grammars. Language Learning 70:S1 ► pp. 188 ff. DOI logo
Dávila-Montes, José & Lyon Rathbun
2020. La Perastories: cognitive and cultural alignment of narrative production by bilinguals in the U.S. – Mexican borderlands. Language and Intercultural Communication 20:3 ► pp. 240 ff. DOI logo
Flores, Cristina
2020. Attrition and Reactivation of a Childhood Language: The Case of Returnee Heritage Speakers. Language Learning 70:S1 ► pp. 85 ff. DOI logo
Flores, Cristina & Esther Rinke
2020. The relevance of language-internal variation in predicting heritage language grammars. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 23:1 ► pp. 25 ff. DOI logo
Lohndal, Terje, Jason Rothman, Tanja Kupisch & Marit Westergaard
2019. Heritage language acquisition: What it reveals and why it is important for formal linguistic theories. Language and Linguistics Compass 13:12 DOI logo
Bayram, Fatih, David Miller, Jason Rothman & Ludovica Serratrice
2018. Studies in bilingualism. In Bilingual Cognition and Language [Studies in Bilingualism, 54], ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Puig-Mayenco, Eloi, Ian Cunnings, Fatih Bayram, David Miller, Susagna Tubau & Jason Rothman
2018. Language Dominance Affects Bilingual Performance and Processing Outcomes in Adulthood. Frontiers in Psychology 9 DOI logo
[no author supplied]
2019. Heritage languages [Studies in Bilingualism, 58], DOI logo
[no author supplied]
2021. Grammatical Aspects of Heritage Languages. In The Cambridge Handbook of Heritage Languages and Linguistics, ► pp. 579 ff. DOI logo
[no author supplied]
2022. Bilingualism, Language Development and Processing across the Lifespan [Bilingual Processing and Acquisition, 15], DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 1 december 2025. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.

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