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In:Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages
Edited by Patrick Rebuschat
[Studies in Bilingualism 48] 2015
► pp. 443–482

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Implicit and explicit instruction in L2 learning

Norris & Ortega (2000) revisited and updated

 | Gwangju National University of Education
ORCiD logo with link | Universitat Oberta de Catalunya
ORCiD logo with link | Indiana University
 | Eastern Washington University
Published online: 24 September 2015
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/sibil.48.18goo
More than a decade has passed since Norris and Ortega’s (2000) seminal meta-analysis on the effectiveness of instruction in L2 learning. This line of research has matured for another research synthesis, which led to the present meta-analytic review. Thirty-four unique sample studies, in each of which explicit and implicit instructional treatments were compared, were retrieved and included in the present meta-analysis: 11 studies from Norris and Ortega’s meta-analysis and 23 new studies published between 1999 and 2011. Overall, explicit instruction was found to have been more effective than implicit instruction. The effectiveness of implicit and explicit instruction in L2 development was also meta-analyzed in terms of several moderator variables. We discuss our results in comparison with Norris and Ortega’s findings.
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2023. Implicit Learning in Production: Productive Generalization of New Form–Meaning Connections in the Absence of Awareness. Language Learning 73:3 ► pp. 723 ff. DOI logo
Gerits, Hedwig & Kris Van den Branden
2023. The acquisition of L2 Hungariangrammar rules and the implicit-explicit debate. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 174:2 ► pp. 202 ff. DOI logo
Hwang, Hyun–Bin
2023. Is evidence‐based L2 pedagogy achievable? The research–practice dialogue in grammar instruction. The Modern Language Journal 107:3 ► pp. 734 ff. DOI logo
Kenanidis, Panagiotis, Ewa Dąbrowska, Miquel Llompart, Diana Pili-Moss & Claudia Felser
2023. Can adults learn L2 grammar after prolonged exposure under incidental conditions?. PLOS ONE 18:7 ► pp. e0288989 ff. DOI logo
Kim, Kathy MinHye & Aline Godfroid
2023. The interface of explicit and implicit second-language knowledge: A longitudinal study. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 26:4 ► pp. 709 ff. DOI logo
Koch, Eva M., Johanna F. de Vos, Alex Housen, Aline Godfroid & Kristin Lemhöfer
2023. Learning second language morphosyntax in dialogue under explicit and implicit conditions: An experimental study with advanced adult learners of German. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 26:5 ► pp. 984 ff. DOI logo
Michaud, Gabriel & Ahlem Ammar
2023. Explicit Instruction within a Task: Before, During, or After?. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 45:2 ► pp. 442 ff. DOI logo
Ní Dhiorbháin, Aisling
2023. A Sociocultural Rationale for an Explicit-Inductive Approach to Grammar Teaching in L2 Teacher Education. Teaching Education 34:3 ► pp. 319 ff. DOI logo
Rivera, Marta, Daniela Paolieri, Antonio Iniesta, Ana I Pérez & Teresa Bajo
2023. Second language acquisition of grammatical rules: The effects of learning condition, rule difficulty, and executive function. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 26:4 ► pp. 639 ff. DOI logo
Rodríguez-Tapia, Sergio
2023. La terminología en el discurso docente de ELE. Contraste de las denominaciones y valores contextuales para la explicación de las formas verbales en -ría en gramáticas frente a manuales de ELE. ELUA: Estudios de Lingüística. Universidad de Alicante :40 ► pp. 147 ff. DOI logo
Veisi, Soheila & Reza Ghaffar Samar
2023. The neural correlates of second language syntax. Journal of Second Language Studies 6:1 ► pp. 146 ff. DOI logo
Wagner, Thomas
2023. Conclusions and Limitations. In English Interlanguage Morphology, ► pp. 141 ff. DOI logo
卫, 孟欣
2023. Virtual Reality-Assisted Language Learning from the Perspective of Brain Science. Modern Linguistics 11:01 ► pp. 81 ff. DOI logo
Azkarai, Agurtzane, Rhonda Oliver & Yohana Gil‐Berrio
2022. Examining Deductive Versus Guided Instruction From an Interactionist Perspective. Language Learning 72:S1 ► pp. 125 ff. DOI logo
Benati, Alessandro G.
2022. Can focus on form have an effect on language development?. In Second Language Acquisition Theory [Bilingual Processing and Acquisition, 14], ► pp. 257 ff. DOI logo
Chen, Mo & Wenya Li
2022. The Influence of Form-Focused Instruction on the L2 Chinese Oral Production of Korean Native Speakers. Frontiers in Psychology 13 DOI logo
Fernández Fuertes, Raquel, Eduardo Gómez Garzarán, Sonja Mujcinovic & Iban Mañas Navarrete
2022. When teaching works and time helps: Noun modification in L2 English school children. Open Linguistics 8:1 ► pp. 475 ff. DOI logo
M. STRATTON, JAMES
2022. Intentional and Incidental Vocabulary Learning: The Role of Historical Linguistics in the Second Language Classroom. The Modern Language Journal 106:4 ► pp. 837 ff. DOI logo
Stratton, James M.
2023. Implicit and explicit instruction in the second language classroom: A study of learner preferences in higher education. Die Unterrichtspraxis/Teaching German 56:2 ► pp. 103 ff. DOI logo
Stratton, James M.
2025. Explicit pronunciation instruction in the second language classroom. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation DOI logo
Moranski, Kara & Janire Zalbidea
2022. Context and Generalizability in Multisite L2 Classroom Research: The Impact of Deductive Versus Guided Inductive Instruction. Language Learning 72:S1 ► pp. 41 ff. DOI logo
Morgan‐Short, Kara, Irene Finestrat, Alicia Luque & David Abugaber
2022. Exploring New Insights Into Explicit and Implicit Second Language Processing: Event‐Related Potentials Analyzed by Source Attribution. Language Learning 72:2 ► pp. 365 ff. DOI logo
Ní Dhiorbháin, Aisling & Pádraig Ó Duibhir
2022. Exploring student primary teachers’ linguistic knowledge of Irish. The Language Learning Journal 50:6 ► pp. 732 ff. DOI logo
Ranta, Leila
2022. Process and Product in ISLA Research: Courage, Commitment, and Tolerance for Ambiguity. Language Learning 72:S1 ► pp. 314 ff. DOI logo
Rebuschat, Patrick
2022. Implicit Learning and Language Acquisition. In The Cognitive Unconscious, ► pp. 115 ff. DOI logo
Rivera, Marta, Daniela Paolieri, Antonio Iniesta & Teresa Bajo
2022. Cognitive and contextual factors modulating grammar learning at older ages. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 14 DOI logo
Roehr-Brackin, Karen
2022. Investigating explicit and implicit L2 knowledge and learning: Replications of Erlam (2005) and Roehr-Brackin and Tellier (2019). Language Teaching 55:2 ► pp. 271 ff. DOI logo
Roehr-Brackin, Karen
2024. Explicit and implicit knowledge and learning of an additional language: A research agenda. Language Teaching 57:1 ► pp. 68 ff. DOI logo
Rousse-Malpat, Audrey, Rasmus Steinkrauss, Martijn Wieling & Marjolijn Verspoor
2022. Communicative language teaching: Structure-Based or Dynamic Usage-Based?. Journal of the European Second Language Association 6:1 ► pp. 20 ff. DOI logo
Spit, Sybren, Sible Andringa, Judith Rispens & Enoch O. Aboh
2022. The Effect of Explicit Instruction on Implicit and Explicit Linguistic Knowledge in Kindergartners. Language Learning and Development 18:2 ► pp. 201 ff. DOI logo
Toda-Cosi, Mireia
2022. Susan M. Gass, Patti Spinner, and Jennifer Behney: Salience in Second Language Acquisition. Applied Linguistics 43:6 ► pp. 1228 ff. DOI logo
Vandommele, Goedele, Koen Van Gorp, Kris Van den Branden & Sven De Maeyer
2022. Assessing the Development of L2 Speaking Skills in Inside-School and Outside-School Settings Through Growth Modelling. Applied Linguistics 43:6 ► pp. 1094 ff. DOI logo
VanPatten, Bill & Megan Smith
2022. Explicit and Implicit Learning in Second Language Acquisition, DOI logo
Bardovi-Harlig, Kathleen & Yucel Yilmaz
2021. Corrective Feedback in Instructional Pragmatics. In The Cambridge Handbook of Corrective Feedback in Second Language Learning and Teaching, ► pp. 429 ff. DOI logo
Benati, Alessandro
2021. Focus on Form, DOI logo
Gao, Jianwu & Shuang Ma
2021. LEARNING CONDITION, LINGUISTIC COMPLEXITY, AND FIRST LANGUAGE TRANSFER IN SEMIARTIFICIAL LANGUAGE LEARNING. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 43:2 ► pp. 355 ff. DOI logo
Monaghan, Padraic, Simón Ruiz & Patrick Rebuschat
2021. The role of feedback and instruction on the cross-situational learning of vocabulary and morphosyntax: Mixed effects models reveal local and global effects on acquisition. Second Language Research 37:2 ► pp. 261 ff. DOI logo
Roehr-Brackin, Karen, Gabriela Adela Gánem-Gutiérrez, Lexa Olivera-Smith & María Teresa Torres-Marín
2021. Are individual differences in cognitive abilities and stylistic preferences related to multilingual adults’ performance in explicit learning conditions?. Language Awareness 30:4 ► pp. 391 ff. DOI logo
Ruiz, Simón, Patrick Rebuschat & Detmar Meurers
2021. The effects of working memory and declarative memory on instructed second language vocabulary learning: Insights from intelligent CALL. Language Teaching Research 25:4 ► pp. 510 ff. DOI logo
Sendur, Kristin A., Jannet van Drie & Carla van Boxtel
2021. Historical contextualization in students’ writing. Journal of the Learning Sciences 30:4-5 ► pp. 797 ff. DOI logo
Teixeira, Joana
2021. Can explicit instruction help L2 learners overcome persistent L1 interference?. In L1 Acquisition and L2 Learning [Language Acquisition and Language Disorders, 65], ► pp. 229 ff. DOI logo
Andringa, Sible
2020. The emergence of awareness in uninstructed L2 learning: A visual world eye tracking study. Second Language Research 36:3 ► pp. 335 ff. DOI logo
Bateman, Blair, Michael Child & Eliane Berlendis Bueno
2020. A focus on language in the immersion language arts curriculum. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education 8:2 ► pp. 200 ff. DOI logo
Gómez-Garzarán, Eduardo & Raquel Fernández-Fuertes
2020. Is explicit instruction effective? The learning of English noun-noun and adjective-noun structures by L1 Spanish school children (¿Es efectiva la instrucción explícita? El aprendizaje de las estructuras nombre-nombre y adjetivo-nombre del inglés por escolares de L1 español). Culture and Education: Cultura y Educación 32:2 ► pp. 299 ff. DOI logo
Mahmoudi‐Gahrouei, Vahid, Manijeh Youhanaee & Dariush Nejadanasari
2020. Targeting accuracy in foreign language teaching: The role of practice type in learning unsalient grammatical aspects. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 30:3 ► pp. 390 ff. DOI logo
Maie, Ryo & Robert M. DeKeyser
2020. CONFLICTING EVIDENCE OF EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT KNOWLEDGE FROM OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE MEASURES. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 42:2 ► pp. 359 ff. DOI logo
Morgan-Short, Kara
2020. Insights into the neural mechanisms of becoming bilingual: A brief synthesis of second language research with artificial linguistic systems. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 23:1 ► pp. 87 ff. DOI logo
Nevalainen, Terttu, Tanja Säily, Turo Vartiainen, Aatu Liimatta & Jefrey Lijffijt
2020. History of English as punctuated equilibria? A meta-analysis of the rate of linguistic change in Middle English. Journal of Historical Sociolinguistics 6:2 DOI logo
Patsala, Paschalia & Maria Michali
2020. Sharpening Students' Critical Literacy Skills Through Corpus-Based Instruction. In Handbook of Research on Cultivating Literacy in Diverse and Multilingual Classrooms [Advances in Educational Technologies and Instructional Design, ], ► pp. 234 ff. DOI logo
Adrada-Rafael, Sergio
2019. Explicitness of deductive instruction and L2 development. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 170:1 ► pp. 111 ff. DOI logo
Ellis, Nick C. & Stefanie Wulff
2019. Cognitive Approaches to Second Language Acquisition. In The Cambridge Handbook of Language Learning, ► pp. 41 ff. DOI logo
Granena, Gisela & Yucel Yilmaz
2019. Corrective Feedback and the Role of Implicit Sequence‐Learning Ability in L2 Online Performance. Language Learning 69:S1 ► pp. 127 ff. DOI logo
Granena, Gisela & Yucel Yilmaz
2021. Corrective Feedback and Grammatical Complexity: A Research Synthesis. In The Cambridge Handbook of Corrective Feedback in Second Language Learning and Teaching, ► pp. 754 ff. DOI logo
Gris Roca, Joaquín
2019. Actividades para el aprendizaje del Inglés como Lengua Extranjera en libros de texto de primaria. Cuadernos de Investigación Filológica 46 ► pp. 27 ff. DOI logo
Ishikawa, Keiichi
2019. Incidental and explicit learning of L2 derivational morphology and the nature of acquired knowledge. Applied Psycholinguistics 40:6 ► pp. 1377 ff. DOI logo
Jordan, Geoffrey
2019. A response to Hughes. ELT Journal DOI logo
Kachinske, Ilina & Robert DeKeyser
2019. The interaction between timing of explicit grammar explanation and individual differences in second language acquisition. Journal of Second Language Studies 2:2 ► pp. 197 ff. DOI logo
Kachinske, Ilina & Robert DeKeyser
2021. The interaction between timing of explicit grammar explanation and individual differences in second language acquisition. In Aptitude-Treatment Interaction in Second Language Learning [Benjamins Current Topics, 116], ► pp. 33 ff. DOI logo
Kang, Eun Young, Sarah Sok & ZhaoHong Han
2019. Thirty-five years of ISLA on form-focused instruction: A meta-analysis. Language Teaching Research 23:4 ► pp. 428 ff. DOI logo
Leow, Ronald P.
2019. ISLA: How implicit or how explicit should it be? Theoretical, empirical, and pedagogical/curricular issues. Language Teaching Research 23:4 ► pp. 476 ff. DOI logo
Loewen, Shawn & Masatoshi Sato
2019. Instructed Second Language Acquisition and English Language Teaching: Theory, Research, and Pedagogy. In Second Handbook of English Language Teaching [Springer International Handbooks of Education, ], ► pp. 1131 ff. DOI logo
Loewen, Shawn & Masatoshi Sato
2019. Instructed Second Language Acquisition and English Language Teaching: Theory, Research, and Pedagogy. In Second Handbook of Information Technology in Primary and Secondary Education [Springer International Handbooks of Education, ], ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Monaghan, Padraic, Christine Schoetensack & Patrick Rebuschat
2019. A Single Paradigm for Implicit and Statistical Learning. Topics in Cognitive Science 11:3 ► pp. 536 ff. DOI logo
Pawlak, Mirosław
2019. Tapping the Distinction Between Explicit and Implicit Knowledge: Methodological Issues. In Contacts and Contrasts in Educational Contexts and Translation [Second Language Learning and Teaching, ], ► pp. 45 ff. DOI logo
Pennington, Martha C. & Pamela Rogerson-Revell
2019. Pronunciation in the Classroom: Teachers and Teaching Methods. In English Pronunciation Teaching and Research [Research and Practice in Applied Linguistics, ], ► pp. 173 ff. DOI logo
Pennington, Martha C. & Pamela Rogerson-Revell
2019. Relating Pronunciation Research and Practice. In English Pronunciation Teaching and Research [Research and Practice in Applied Linguistics, ], ► pp. 401 ff. DOI logo
Saito, Kazuya & Luke Plonsky
2019. Effects of Second Language Pronunciation Teaching Revisited: A Proposed Measurement Framework and Meta‐Analysis. Language Learning 69:3 ► pp. 652 ff. DOI logo
YILMAZ, YUCEL & GISELA GRANENA
2019. Cognitive Individual Differences as Predictors of Improvement and Awareness Under Implicit and Explicit Feedback Conditions. The Modern Language Journal 103:3 ► pp. 686 ff. DOI logo
Yilmaz, Yucel & Gisela Granena
2021. IMPLICITNESS AND EXPLICITNESS IN COGNITIVE ABILITIES AND CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 43:3 ► pp. 523 ff. DOI logo
Yilmaz, Yucel & Ayşenur Sağdıç
2019. The interaction between inhibitory control and corrective feedback timing. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 170:2 ► pp. 204 ff. DOI logo
Alonso-Aparicio, Irene
2018. The impact of prior knowledge on second language grammar practice. In Usage-inspired L2 Instruction [Language Learning & Language Teaching, 49], ► pp. 143 ff. DOI logo
GRAUS, JOHAN & PETER–ARNO COPPEN
2018. Influencing Student Teacher Grammar Cognitions: The Case of the Incongruous Curriculum. The Modern Language Journal 102:4 ► pp. 693 ff. DOI logo
Lin, Huifen, Tsuiping Chen & Hsien-Chin Liou
2018. Transparency of reporting in CALL meta-analyses between 2003 and 2015. ReCALL 30:3 ► pp. 253 ff. DOI logo
Rastelli, Stefano
2018. Neurolinguistics and second language teaching: A view from the crossroads. Second Language Research 34:1 ► pp. 103 ff. DOI logo
Ruiz, Simón, Kaitlyn M. Tagarelli & Patrick Rebuschat
2018. Simultaneous Acquisition of Words and Syntax: Effects of Exposure Condition and Declarative Memory. Frontiers in Psychology 9 DOI logo
Spada, Nina
2018. Classroom Research. In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Spada, Nina
2022. Reflecting on task-based language teaching from an Instructed SLA perspective. Language Teaching 55:1 ► pp. 74 ff. DOI logo
Spada, Nina
2023. Form‐Focused Instruction. In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
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2025. Reflecting on task-based language teaching from an Instructed SLA perspective. In Broadening the Horizon of TBLT [Task-Based Language Teaching, 17], ► pp. 164 ff. DOI logo
Wulff, Stefanie & Nick C. Ellis
2018. Usage-based approaches to second language acquisition. In Bilingual Cognition and Language [Studies in Bilingualism, 54], ► pp. 37 ff. DOI logo
Arroyo, Diana C. & Yucel Yilmaz
2017. The role of language analytic ability in the effectiveness of different feedback timing conditions. In Expanding individual difference research in the interaction approach [AILA Applied Linguistics Series, 16], ► pp. 71 ff. DOI logo
Indrarathne, Bimali & Judit Kormos
2017. ATTENTIONAL PROCESSING OF INPUT IN EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT CONDITIONS. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 39:3 ► pp. 401 ff. DOI logo
Cerezo, Luis, Allison Caras & Ronald P. Leow
2016. THE EFFECTIVENESS OF GUIDED INDUCTION VERSUS DEDUCTIVE INSTRUCTION ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF COMPLEX SPANISHGUSTARSTRUCTURES. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 38:2 ► pp. 265 ff. DOI logo
Cintrón-Valentín, Myrna C. & Nick C. Ellis
2016. Salience in Second Language Acquisition: Physical Form, Learner Attention, and Instructional Focus. Frontiers in Psychology 7 DOI logo
Godfroid, Aline
2016. THE EFFECTS OF IMPLICIT INSTRUCTION ON IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT KNOWLEDGE DEVELOPMENT. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 38:2 ► pp. 177 ff. DOI logo
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2021. Implicit and Explicit Learning and Knowledge. In Research Questions in Language Education and Applied Linguistics [Springer Texts in Education, ], ► pp. 823 ff. DOI logo
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Martin, Ines A. & Carrie N. Jackson
2016. Pronunciation Training Facilitates the Learning and Retention of L2 Grammatical Structures. Foreign Language Annals 49:4 ► pp. 658 ff. DOI logo
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2025. Does Instruction Make a Difference?. In Key Questions in Second Language Acquisition, ► pp. 128 ff. DOI logo

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