Cover not available

In:Quantitative Methods in Multilingual Acquisition and Processing
Edited by Gabrielle Klassen and John W. Schwieter
[Research Methods in Applied Linguistics 16] 2026
► pp. 127–150

Get fulltext from our e-platform
JBE logo with link
PDF logo with download linkDownload Book PDF
EPUB logo with download linkDownload Book EPUB
authorization required

Chapter 7
The use of priming to study language processing in multilinguals

Published online: 26 March 2026
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/rmal.16.07van
Abstract
This chapter discusses the use of priming to investigate the representation and online processing of language in multilinguals. Studies using masked and unmasked priming will be discussed as well as different types of cross-language priming (e.g., orthographic, phonological, semantic/associative, and translation). Key findings that have emerged from these priming studies will be summarized. The chapter will end with a discussion of some methodological issues of existing priming studies and possible avenues for future priming studies to study language processing in multilinguals
Article outline
  • 7.1Introduction
  • 7.2The priming paradigm
  • 7.3Cross-language orthographic priming
  • 7.4Cross-language phonological priming
  • 7.5Cross-language semantic/associative priming
  • 7.6Translation priming
  • 7.7Concluding remarks: Methodological issues and future research
  • References
References (128)
References
Adelman, J. S., Johnson, R. L., McCormick, S. F., McKague, M., Kinoshita, S., Bowers, J. S., Perry, J. R., Lupker, S. J., Forster, K. I., Cortese, M. J., Scaltritti, M., Aschenbrenner, A. J., Coane, J. H., White, L., Yap, M. J., Davis, C., Kim, J., & Davis, C. J. (2014). A behavioral database for masked form priming. Behavior Research Methods, 46, 1052–1067. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Allen, D. B., & Conklin, K. (2014). Cross-linguistic similarity norms for Japanese–English translation equivalents. Behavior Research Methods, 46(2), 540–563. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Altarriba, J., & Basnight-Brown, D. M. (2007). Methodological considerations in performing semantic-and translation-priming experiments across languages. Behavior Research Methods, 39(1), 1–18. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Amenta, S., Badan, L., & Brysbaert, M. (2020). LexITA: A quick and reliable assessment tool for Italian L2 receptive vocabulary size. Applied Linguistics, 42(2), 292–314. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Anderson, J. A. E., Mak, L., Keyvani Chahi, A., & Bialystok, E. (2018). The language and social background questionnaire: Assessing degree of bilingualism in a diverse population. Behavior Research Methods, 50(1), 250–263. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ando, E., Jared, D., Nakayama, M., & Hino, Y. (2014). Cross-script phonological priming with Japanese Kanji primes and English targets. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 26(8), 853–870. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ando, E., Matsuki, K., Sheridan, H., & Jared, D. (2015). The locus of Katakana–English masked phonological priming effects. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18(1), 101–117. Cambridge Core. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Angele, B., Baciero, A., Gómez, P., & Perea, M. (2023). Does online masked priming pass the test? The effects of prime exposure duration on masked identity priming. Behavior Research Methods, 55, 151–167. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Aparicio, X., & Lavaur, J.-M. (2015). Masked translation priming effects in visual word recognition by trilinguals. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 45, 1369–1388. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bargh, J. A. (2014). The historical origins of priming as the preparation of behavioral responses: Unconscious carryover and contextual influences of real-world importance. In Daniel C. Molden (Ed.), Understanding priming effects in social psychology. (pp. 218–233). The Guilford Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Basnight-Brown, D. M., & Altarriba, J. (2007). Differences in semantic and translation priming across languages: The role of language direction and language dominance. Memory & Cognition, 35, 953–965. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bijeljac-babic, R., Biardeau, A., & Grainger, J. (1997). Masked orthographic priming in bilingual word recognition. Memory & Cognition, 25(4), 447–457. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Brown, C., & Hagoort, P. (1993). The processing nature of the N400: Evidence from masked priming. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 5(1), 34–44. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Brysbaert, M. (2013). LEXTALE_FR: A fast, free, and efficient test to measure language proficiency in French. Psychologica Belgica, 53(1), 23–37. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Brysbaert, M., Van Dyck, G., & Van de Poel, M. (1999). Visual word recognition in bilinguals: Evidence from masked phonological priming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 25, 137. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Casaponsa, A., & Duñabeitia, J. A. (2016). Lexical organization of language-ambiguous and language-specific words in bilinguals. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 69(3), 589–604. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chaouch-Orozco, A., González Alonso, J., & Rothman, J. (2021). Individual differences in bilingual word recognition: The role of experiential factors and word frequency in cross-language lexical priming. Applied Psycholinguistics, 42(2), 447–474. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chen, B., Zhou, H., Gao, Y., & Dunlap, S. (2014). Cross-language translation priming asymmetry with Chinese-English bilinguals: A test of the sense model. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 43, 225–240. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chen, H.-C., Yamauchi, T., Tamaoka, K., & Vaid, J. (2007). Homophonic and semantic priming of Japanese kanji words: A time course study. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14(1), 64–69. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Commissaire, E. (2022). Do both WRAP and TRAP inhibit the recognition of the French word DRAP? Impact of orthographic markedness on cross-language orthographic priming. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 75(6), 1094–1113. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Davis, C., Castles, A., & Iakovidis, E. (1998). Masked homophone and pseudohomophone priming in children and adults. Language and Cognitive Processes, 13(6), 625–651. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Davis, C., & Kim, J. (2021). Bilingual lexical representation: We have some words to say. Journal of Second Language Studies, 4(2), 353–374. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
de Groot, A. M. B., & Nas, G. L. J. (1991). Lexical representation of cognates and noncognates in compound bilinguals. Journal of Memory and Language, 30, 90–123. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dehaene, S., Naccache, L., Cohen, L., Bihan, D. L., Mangin, J.-F., Poline, J.-B., & Rivière, D. (2001). Cerebral mechanisms of word masking and unconscious repetition priming. Nature Neuroscience, 4(7), 752–758. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dijkstra, T., Hilberink-Schulpen, B., & van Heuven, W. J. B. (2010). Repetition and masked form priming within and between languages using word and nonword neighbors. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 13(3), 341–357. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dijkstra, T., & van Heuven, W. J. B. (2002). The architecture of the bilingual word recognition system: From identification to decision. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 5(3), 175–197. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dijkstra, T., Wahl, A., Buytenhuijs, F., Van Halem, N., Al-Jibouri, Z., De Korte, M., & Rekké, S. (2019). Multilink: A computational model for bilingual word recognition and word translation. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 22(4), 657–679. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dimitropoulou, M., Duñabeitia, J. A., & Carreiras, M. (2011a). Phonology by itself: Masked phonological priming effects with and without orthographic overlap. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 23(2), 185–203. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2011b). Two words, one meaning: Evidence of automatic co-activation of translation equivalents. Frontiers in Psychology, 2. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Duñabeitia, J. A., Perea, M., & Carreiras, M. (2010). Masked translation priming effects with highly proficient simultaneous bilinguals. Experimental Psychology, 57, 98–107. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Duyck, W., Diependaele, K., Drieghe, D., & Brysbaert, M. (2004). The size of the cross-lingual masked phonological priming effect does not depend on second language proficiency. Experimental Psychology, 51(2), 116–124. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Duyck, W., & Warlop, N. (2009). Translation priming between the native language and a second language: New evidence from Dutch-French bilinguals. Experimental Psychology, 56, 173–179. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Evett, L. J., & Humphreys, G. W. (1981). The use of abstract graphemic information in lexical access. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology A: Human Experimental Psychology, 33A(4), 325–350. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ferrand, L., & Grainger, J. (1993). The time course of orthographic and phonological code activation in the early phases of visual word recognition. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 31(2), 119–122. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ferrand, L., Humphreys, G. W., & Segui, J. (1998). Masked repetition and phonological priming in picture naming. Perception & Psychophysics, 60(2), 263–274. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ferrand, L., & New, B. (2004). Semantic and associative priming in the mental lexicon. In Mental lexicon: “Some words to talk about words” (pp. 25–43). Nova Science Publishers.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Finkbeiner, M., Forster, K. I., Nicol, J., & Nakamura, K. (2004). The role of polysemy in masked semantic and translation priming. Journal of Memory and Language, 51, 1–22. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Forster, K. I., & Davis, C. (1984). Repetition priming and frequency attenuation in lexical access. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 10(4), 680–698. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1991). The density constraint on form-priming in the naming task: Interference effects from a masked prime. Journal of Memory & Language, 30(1), 1–25. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Forster, K. I., Davis, C., Schoknecht, C., & Carter, R. (1987). Masked priming with graphemically related forms: Repetition or partial activation? The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 39A(2), 211–251. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Forster, K. I., Mohan, K., & Hector, J. (2003). The mechanics of masked priming. In S. Kinoshita & S. J. Lupker (Eds.), Masked priming: The state of the art (pp. 3–37). Psychology Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Frenck-Mestre, C., & Prince, P. (1997). Second language autonomy. Journal of Memory and Language, 37(4), 481–501. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Frost, R. (1998). Toward a strong phonological theory of visual word recognition: True issues and false trails. Psychological Bulletin, 123(1), 71–99. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Frost, R., Forster, K. I., & Deutsch, A. (1997). What can we learn from the morphology of Hebrew? A masked-priming investigation of morphological representation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 23(4), 829–856.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gollan, T. H., Forster, K. I., & Frost, R. (1997). Translation priming with different scripts: Masked priming with cognates and noncognates in Hebrew-English bilinguals. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 1122–1139. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Grainger, J., & Frenck-Mestre, C. (1998). Masked priming by translation equivalents in proficient bilinguals. Language and Cognitive Processes, 13, 601–623. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Grainger, J., & Jacobs, A. M. (1999). Temporal integration of information in orthographic priming. Visual Cognition, 6(3–4), 461–492. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Grainger, J., Kiyonaga, K., & Holcomb, P. J. (2006). The time course of orthographic and phonological code activation. Psychological Science, 17, 1021–1026. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Grosjean, F. (1998). Transfer and language mode. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1(3), 175–176. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Guerrera, C., & Forster, K. (2008). Masked form priming with extreme transposition. Language and Cognitive Processes, 23(1), 117–142. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Haigh, C. A., & Jared, D. (2007). The activation of phonological representations by bilinguals while reading silently: Evidence from interlingual homophones. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 33(4), 623–644. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hoshino, N., Midgley, K. J., Holcomb, P. J., & Grainger, J. (2010). An ERP investigation of masked cross-script translation priming. Brain Research, 1344, 159–172. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hulstijn, J. H. (2012). The construct of language proficiency in the study of bilingualism from a cognitive perspective. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15(2), 422–433. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hutchison, K. A., Balota, D. A., Neely, J. H., Cortese, M. J., Cohen-Shikora, E. R., Tse, C.-S., Yap, M. J., Bengson, J. J., Niemeyer, D., & Buchanan, E. (2013). The semantic priming project. Behavior Research Methods, 45, 1099–1114. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Izura, C., Cuetos, F., & Brysbaert, M. (2014). Lextale-Esp: A test to rapidly and efficiently assess the Spanish vocabulary size. Psicológica, 35(1), 49–66.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jared, D., & Szucs, C. (2002). Phonological activation in bilinguals: Evidence from interlingual homograph naming. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 5(3), 225–239. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jiang, N. (1999). Testing processing explanations for the asymmetry in masked cross-language priming. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 2, 59–75. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2023). The study of bilingual language processing. Oxford University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jiang, N., & Forster, K. I. (2001). Cross-language priming asymmetries in lexical decision and episodic recognition. Journal of Memory and Language, 44, 32–51. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jin, Y.-S. (1990). Effects of concreteness on cross-language priming in lexical decisions. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 70(3 suppl), 1139–1154. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Keatley, C. W., Spinks, J. A., & De Gelder, B. (1994). Asymmetrical cross-language priming effects. Memory & Cognition, 22(1), 70–84. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kim, J., & Davis, C. (2003). Task effects in masked cross-script translation and phonological priming. Journal of Memory and Language, 49, 484–499. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kim, J., H., Kim, N., & Yang, J. H. (2020). Masked phonological priming in languages with different scripts: Evidence from Korean-English bilinguals. Journal of Cognitive Science, 21(4), 569–594.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kinoshita, S., & Lupker, S. J. (2003). Masked priming: The state of the art. Psychology Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lashley, K. S. (1951). The problem of serial order in behavior. In L. A. Jeffress (Ed.), Cerebral mechanisms in behavior (pp. 112–131). Wiley.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, S. T., van Heuven, W. J. B., Price, J. M., & Leong, C. X. R. (2023). Translation norms for Malay and English words: The effects of word class, semantic variability, lexical characteristics, and language proficiency on translation. Behavior Research Methods, 55, 3585–3601. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2024). LexMAL: A quick and reliable lexical test for Malay speakers. Behavior Research Methods, 56(5), 4563–4581. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, Y., Jang, E., & Choi, W. (2018). L2-L1 translation priming effects in a lexical decision task: Evidence from low proficient Korean-English bilinguals. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 267. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lemhöfer, K., & Broersma, M. (2012). Introducing LexTALE: A quick and valid Lexical Test for Advanced Learners of English. Behavior Research Methods, 44, 325–343. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Li, P., Zhang, F., Yu, A., & Zhao, X. (2020). Language History Questionnaire (LHQ3): An enhanced tool for assessing multilingual experience. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(5), 938–944. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lucas, M. (2000). Semantic priming without association: A meta-analytic review. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 7(4), 618–630. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lupker, S. J., & Davis, C. J. (2009). Sandwich priming: A method for overcoming the limitations of masked priming by reducing lexical competitor effects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning Memory & Cognition, 35(3), 618–639. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lupker, S. J., Perea, M., & Nakayama, M. (2015). Non-cognate translation priming effects in the same-different task: Evidence for the impact of “higher level” information. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 30, 781–795. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Marian, V., Blumenfeld, H. K., & Kaushanskaya, M. (2007). The Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q): Assessing language profiles in bilinguals and multilinguals. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50, 940–967. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Marslen-Wilson, W. D., Bozic, M., & Randall, B. (2008). Early decomposition in visual word recognition: Dissociating morphology, form, and meaning. Language and Cognitive Processes, 23(3), 394–421. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
McDonough, K., & Trofimovich, P. (2011). Using priming methods in second language research. Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
McNamara, T. P. (2005). Semantic priming: Perspectives from memory and word recognition. Psychology Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
McPhedran, M. J., & Lupker, S. J. (2021). L2-L1 noncognate masked translation priming as a task-specific phenomenon. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 24(3), 507–523. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Meade, G., Midgley, K. J., Sevcikova Sehyr, Z., Holcomb, P. J., & Emmorey, K. (2017). Implicit co-activation of American Sign Language in deaf readers: An ERP study. Brain and Language, 170, 50–61. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Meyer, D. E., & Schvaneveldt, R. W. (1971). Facilitation in recognizing pairs of words: Evidence of a dependence between retrieval operations. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 90(2), 227–234. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Midgley, K. J., Holcomb, P. J., & Grainger, J. (2009). Masked repetition and translation priming in second language learners: A window on the time-course of form and meaning activation using ERPs. Psychophysiology, 46, 551–565. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mirault, J., Declerck, M., & Grainger, J. (2022). Fast priming of grammatical decisions: Repetition and transposed-word priming effects. Royal Society Open Science, 9(1), 211082. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Miwa, K., Dijkstra, T., Bolger, P., & Baayen, R. H. (2014). Reading English with Japanese in mind: Effects of frequency, phonology, and meaning in different-script bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 17(3), 445–463. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nakayama, M., Ida, K., & Lupker, S. J. (2016). Cross-script L2-L1 noncognate translation priming in lexical decision depends on L2 proficiency: Evidence from Japanese–English bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1–22. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nakayama, M., Sears, C. R., Hino, Y., & Lupker, S. J. (2012). Cross-script phonological priming for Japanese-English bilinguals: Evidence for integrated phonological representations. Language and Cognitive Processes, 27, 1563–1583. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2013). Masked translation priming with Japanese–English bilinguals: Interactions between cognate status, target frequency and L2 proficiency. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25, 949–981. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Neely, J. H. (1977). Semantic priming and retrieval from lexical memory: Roles of inhibitionless spreading activation and limited-capacity attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 106(3), 226–254. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1991). Semantic priming effects in visual word recognition: A selective review of current findings and theories. In Basic processes in reading: Visual word recognition. (pp. 264–336). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Perea, M., Dunabeitia, J. A., & Carreiras, M. (2008). Masked associative/semantic priming effects across languages with highly proficient bilinguals. Journal of Memory and Language, 58(4), 916–930. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Perea, M., & Gotor, A. (1997). Associative and semantic priming effects occur at very short stimulus-onset asynchronies in lexical decision and naming. Cognition, 62(2), 223–240. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Perfetti, C. A., & Tan, L. H. (1998). The time course of graphic, phonological, and semantic activation in Chinese character identification. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24(1), 101–118. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Prior, A., MacWhinney, B., & Kroll, J. F. (2007). Translation norms for English and Spanish: The role of lexical variables, word class, and L2 proficiency in negotiating translation ambiguity. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 1029–1038. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Prior, A., & van Hell, J. G. (2021). Including bilingual participants in cognitive research. In Bilingualism across the lifespan: Opportunities and challenges for cognitive research in a global society (pp. 47–65). Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rastle, K., & Brysbaert, M. (2006). Masked phonological priming effects in English: Are they real? Do they matter? Cognitive Psychology, 53(2), 97–145. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rastle, K., Davis, M. H., Marslen-Wilson, W. D., & Tyler, L. K. (2000). Morphological and semantic effects in visual word recognition: A time-course study. Language and Cognitive Processes, 15(4–5), 507–537. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rataj, K., Kakuba, P., Mandera, P., & van Heuven, W. J. B. (2023). Establishing semantic relatedness through ratings, reaction times, and semantic vectors: A database in Polish. PLOS ONE, 18(4), e0284801. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rugg, M. D. (1985). The effects of semantic priming and word repetition on event-related potentials. Psychophysiology, 22(6), 642–647. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sabourin, L., Brien, C., & Burkholder, M. (2014). The effect of age of L2 acquisition on the organization of the bilingual lexicon: Evidence from masked priming. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 17(3), 542–555. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schoonbaert, S., Duyck, W., Brysbaert, M., & Hartsuiker, R. J. (2009). Semantic and translation priming from a first language to a second and back: Making sense of the findings. Memory & Cognition, 37, 569–586. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schoonbaert, S., Holcomb, P. J., Grainger, J., & Hartsuiker, R. J. (2011). Testing asymmetries in noncognate translation priming: Evidence from RTs and ERPs. Psychophysiology, 48, 74–81. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Segal, S. J., & Cofer, C. N. (1960). The effect of recency and recall on word association. American Psychologist, 15(7), 451.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Segui, J., & Grainger, J. (1990). Priming word recognition with orthographic neighbors: Effects of relative prime-target frequency. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 16(1), 65–76. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sereno, J. A. (1991). Graphemic, associative, and syntactic priming effects at a brief stimulus onset asynchrony in lexical decision and naming. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 17(3), 459–477. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Thierry, G., & Wu, Y. J. (2004). Electrophysiological evidence for language interference in late bilinguals. Neuroreport, 15, 1555–1558. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2007). Brain potentials reveal unconscious translation during foreign language comprehension. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA, 104, 12530–12535. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tokowicz, N. (2014). Translation ambiguity affects language processing, learning, and representation. In R. T. Miller et al. (Eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 2012 Second Language Research Forum (pp. 170–180). Cascadilla Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tokowicz, N., & Degani, T. (2021). Design challenges: Development of bilingual materials and making appropriate comparisons. In W. S. Francis (Ed.), Bilingualism across the lifespan: Opportunities and challenges for cognitive research in a global society (pp. 106–122). Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tokowicz, N., Kroll, J. F., de Groot, A. M. B., & van Hell, J. G. (2002). Number-of-translation norms for Dutch-English translation pairs: A new tool for examining language production. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 34, 435–451. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tytus, A. E. (2017). Asymmetrical priming effects: An exploration of trilingual German–English–French lexico-semantic memory. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 46(6), 1625–1644. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Van Heuven, W. J. B., Dijkstra, T., & Grainger, J. (1998). Orthographic neighborhood effects in bilingual word recognition. Journal of Memory and Language, 39(3), 458–483. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Van Heuven, W. J. B., Dijkstra, T., Grainger, J., & Schriefers, H. (2001). Shared neighborhood effects in masked orthographic priming. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8(1), 96–101. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Van Wijnendaele, I., & Brysbaert, M. (2002). Visual word recognition in bilinguals: Phonological priming from the second to the first language. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 28(3), 616–627. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
VandenBos, G. R. (2015). APA Dictionary of Psychology (2nd ed.). American Psychological Association. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Voga, M., & Grainger, J. (2007). Cognate status and cross-script translation priming. Memory & Cognition, 35, 938–952. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wang, X. (2013). Language dominance in translation priming: Evidence from balanced and unbalanced Chinese–English bilinguals. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 66, 727–743. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wang, X., & Forster, K. I. (2015). Is translation priming asymmetry due to partial awareness of the prime? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18, 651–669. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wen, Y., Filik, R., & van Heuven, W. J. B. (2018). Electrophysiological dynamics of Chinese phonology during visual word recognition in Chinese-English bilinguals. Scientific Reports, 8, 6869. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wen, Y., Qiu, Y., Leong, C. X. R., & van Heuven, W. J. B. (2024). LexCHI: A quick lexical test for estimating language proficiency in Chinese. Behavior Research Methods, 56, 2333–2352. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wen, Y., & van Heuven, W. J. B. (2017a). Chinese translation norms for 1429 English words. Behavior Research Methods, 49, 1006–1019. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2017b). Non-cognate translation priming in masked priming lexical decision experiments: A meta-analysis. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 24, 879–886. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2018). Limitations of translation activation in masked priming: Behavioural evidence from Chinese-English bilinguals and computational modelling. Journal of Memory and Language, 101, 84–96. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wu, Y. J., & Thierry, G. (2010). Chinese-English bilinguals reading English hear Chinese. The Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 7646–7651. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2012). How reading in a second language protects your heart. The Journal of Neuroscience, 32, 6485–6489. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Xia, V., & Andrews, S. (2015). Masked translation priming asymmetry in Chinese-English bilinguals: Making sense of the Sense Model. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 68, 294–325. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Xu, G., Lin, J., & Dong, Y. (2021). Cross-script phonological activation in Chinese–English bilinguals: The effect of SOA from masked priming. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 75(4), 374–386. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zhang, T., van Heuven, W. J. B., & Conklin, K. (2011). Fast automatic translation and morphological decomposition in Chinese-English bilinguals. Psychological Science, 22, 1237–1242. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zhou, H., Chen, B., Yang, M., & Dunlap, S. (2010). Language nonselective access to phonological representations: Evidence from Chinese–English bilinguals. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 63, 2051–2066. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zhou, X., & Marslen-Wilson, W. (2000). The relative time course of semantic and phonological activation in reading Chinese. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26(5), 1245–1265. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue