Cover not available

In:Digital and Internet-Based Research Methods in Applied Linguistics
Edited by Matt Kessler
[Research Methods in Applied Linguistics 15] 2026
► pp. 265–288

Get fulltext from our e-platform
JBE logo with link
PDF logo with download linkDownload Book PDF
EPUB logo with download linkDownload Book EPUB
authorization required

Chapter 13
Eye-tracking

 | University College London
 | Beijing Foreign Studies University
 | University of Nottingham
Published online: 5 January 2026
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/rmal.15.13pel
Abstract
Eye-tracking allows researchers to record eye movements while processing visual stimuli (text, images, video), providing a direct measure of attention and processing effort. It has gained popularity in applied linguistics and has quickly become a main data collection method in our field. While current eye-tracking research is conducted in laboratory settings with specialized hardware, technological advancements are leading to improvements in web-based eye-trackers. This chapter provides an introduction to the technique and an overview of how eye-tracking has been used in applied linguistics research, identifying commonly researched topics and questions. It also provides a discussion of main steps in the implementation of eye-tracking studies, highlighting key considerations in data collection and data analysis procedures. The chapter also showcases key eye-tracking studies that have explored a range of topics in applied linguistics, including language learning, language assessment, and bilingualism. Finally, it discusses some of the main methodological challenges in the use of this data collection method and identifies directions for future research.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Frequently asked research questions
  • 3.Implementation
    • Initial considerations
    • Experiment design
    • Data collection and analysis
  • 4.Example studies
    • Révész et al. (2019)
    • Conklin and Carrol (2021)
    • Pellicer-Sánchez et al. (2021)
    • Aryadoust et al. (2022)
    • Wang and Pellicer-Sánchez (2022)
    • Kuperman et al. (2023)
  • 5.Ethics and research integrity considerations
  • 6.Challenges and issues
    • Pre-study considerations
    • During data collection
    • Post-study challenges
  • 7.Future research directions
  • References
References (48)
References
Aryadoust, V., Foo, S., & Ng, L. Y. (2021). What can gaze behaviors, neuroimaging data, and test scores tell us about test method effects and cognitive load in listening assessments? Language Testing, 39(1), 56–89. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bax, S., & Chan, S. (2019). Using eye-tracking research to investigate language test validity and design, System, 83, 64–78. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bisson, M., Van Heuven, W., Conklin, K., & Tunny, R. (2014). Processing of native and foreign language subtitles in films: An eye tracking study. Applied Psycholinguistics, 35(2), 399–418. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Brunfaut, T. (2021). Eye-tracking as a research method in language testing. In H. Mohebbi & C. Coombe (Eds.), Research questions in language education and applied linguistics. Springer. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chaffin, R., Morris, R. K., & Seely, R. E. (2001). Learning new word meanings from context: A study of eye movements. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 27, 225–235.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Conklin, K., & Alotaibi, S. (2023). Eye-tracking reading-while-listening: Challenges and methodological considerations in vocabulary research. Research Methods in Applied Linguistics, 2(3), 1–7. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Conklin, K., & Carrol, G. (2021). Words go together like ‘bread and butter’: The rapid, automatic acquisition of lexical patterns. Applied Linguistics, 42(3), 492–513. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Conklin, K., & Pellicer-Sánchez, A. (2022). Eye tracking. In S. Li, P. Hiver, & M. Papi (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition and individual differences. Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Conklin, K., Pellicer-Sánchez, A., & Carroll, G. (2018). Eye-tracking: A guide for applied linguistics research. Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cop, U., Drieghe, D., & Duyck, W. (2015). Eye Movement Patterns in Natural Reading: A Comparison of Monolingual and Bilingual Reading of a Novel. PLoS ONE 10(8): e0134008. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cop, U., Dirix, N., Drieghe, D., & Duyck, W. (2017). Presenting GECO: An eyetracking corpus of monolingual and bilingual sentence reading. Behavioral Research Methods, 49(2), 602–615. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Elgort, I., & Beyersmann, E. L. (2024). Do reading times predict word learning? An eye–tracking study with novel words. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 46(4), 1282–1297. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Elgort, I., Brysbaert, M., Stevens, M., & Van Assche, E. (2018). Contextual word learning during reading in a second language: An eye movement study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40, 341–366. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Elgort, I., Wetering, R., Arrow, T., & Beyersmann, E. (2024). Previewing novel words before reading affects their processing during reading: An eye-movement study with first and second language readers. Language Learning, 74(1), 78–110. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gánem Gutiérrez, G. A., & Gilmore, A. (2018). Tracking the real-time evolution of a writing event: Second language writers at different proficiency levels. Language Learning, 68(2), 469–506. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gass, S. M., & Mackey, A. (2017). Stimulated recall methodology in applied linguistics and L2 research (2nd ed.). Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Godfroid, A. (2020). Eye tracking in second language acquisition and bilingualism: A research synthesis and methodological guide. Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Godfroid, A., Ahn, J., Choi, I., Ballard, L., Cui, Y., Johnston, S., Lee, S., Sarkar, A., & Yoon, H. (2018). Incidental vocabulary learning in a natural reading context: An eye-tracking study. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 21(3), 563–584. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Godfroid, A., Boers, F., & Housen, A. (2013). An eye for words: Gauging the role of attention in incidental L2 vocabulary acquisition by means of eye tracking. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 35, 483–517. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Godfroid, A., Finch, B., & Koh, J. (2025). Reporting eye-tracking research in second language acquisition and bilingualism: A synthesis and field-specific guidelines. Language Learning. 75(1), 250–294. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Godfroid, A., & Hui, B. (2020). Five common pitfalls in eye-tracking research. Second Language Research, 36(3), 277–305. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Godfroid, A., & Uggen, M. (2013). Attention to irregular verbs by beginning learners of German: An eye-movement study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 35, 291–322. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gressel, C., Overdorf, R., Hagenstedt, I., Karaboga, M., Lurtz, H., & Raschke, M. (2023). Privacy-aware eye tracking: Challenges and future directions. IEEE Pervasive Computing, 22(1), 95–102. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Holmqvist, K., Nyström, M., Andersson, R., Dewhurst, R., Halszka, J., & van de Weijer, J. (2011). Eye tracking: A comprehensive guide to methods and measures. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Indrarathne, B., & Kormos, J. (2017). Attentional processing of input in explicit and implicit conditions: An eye-tracking study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 39(3), 401–430. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Joseph, H. S. S. L., Wonnacott, E., Forber, P., & Nation, K. P. (2014). Becoming a written word: Eye movements reveal order of acquisition effects following incidental exposure to new words during silent reading. Cognition, 133, 238–248. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jung, J., & Lee, M. (2023). Second language reading and recall processes under different reading purposes: An eye-tracking, keystroke-logging, and stimulated recall study. Language Awareness, 32(2), 278–300. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980). A theory of reading: From eye fixations to comprehension. Psychological Review, 87(4), 329–354. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kuperman, V., Siegelman, N., Schroeder, S., Acartürk, C., Alexeeva, S., Amenta, S., … Usal, K. A. (2023). Text reading in English as a second language: Evidence from the Multilingual Eye-Movements Corpus. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 45(1), 3–37. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Montero Perez, M., Peters, E., & Desmet, P. (2015). Enhancing vocabulary learning through captioned video: An eye-tracking study. The Modern Language Journal, 99(2), 308–328. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pellicer-Sánchez, A. (2016). Incidental L2 vocabulary acquisition from and while reading: An eye-tracking study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 38(1), 97–130. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pellicer-Sánchez, A., Conklin, K., & Vilkaitė-Lozdienė, L. (2021). The effect of pre-reading instruction on vocabulary learning: An investigation of L1 and L2 readers’ eye movements. Language Learning, 71, 162–203. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pellicer-Sánchez, A., Tragant, E., Conklin, K., Rodgers, M., Serrano, R., & Llanes, À. (2020). Young learners’ processing of multimodal input and its impact on reading comprehension: An eye-tracking study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 42(3), 577–598. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Puimège, E., Montero Perez, M., & Peters, E. (2023). The effects of typographic enhancement on L2 collocation processing and learning from reading: An eye-tracking study. Applied Linguistics, 45(1), 88–110. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pulido, M., & Conklin, K. (2023). Realizing new potential in vocabulary studies: Co-registration of eye movements and brain potentials. Research Methods in Applied Linguistics, 3(2), 1–8. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rayner, K. (2009). Eye movements and attention in reading, scene perception, and visual search. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 62, 1457–1506. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Révész, A., Lu, X., & Pellicer-Sánchez, A. (2021). Expanding research methods: Using new methodologies to capture the processing dimension of writing and written corrective feedback use. In R. Manchón & C. Polio (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of SLA and writing. Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Révész, A., Michel, M., & Lee, M. (2019). Exploring second language writers’ pausing and revision behaviors: A mixed-methods study. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 41(3), 605–631. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Révész, A., Michel, M., Lu, X., Kourtali, N., Lee, M., & Borges, L. (2022). The relationship of proficiency to speed fluency, pausing, and eyegaze behaviors in L2 writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 58, 100927. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schmidt, R. (2001). Attention. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction (pp. 3–32). Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Shi, D., Révész, A., & Pellicer-Sánchez, A. (2025). The effects of task repetition on the processing and acquisition of technical vocabulary through video-lecture-based tasks: A mixed-methods study. Language Learning. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Suvorov, R. (2015). The use of eye tracking in research on video-based second language (L2) listening assessment: A comparison of context videos and content videos. Language Testing, 32(4), 463–483. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12(2), 257–285. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ver Hoef, J. M., & Boveng, P. L. (2007). Quasi-Poisson vs. negative binomial regression: How should we model overdispersed count data? Ecology, 88(11), 2766–2772. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wang, A., & Pellicer-Sánchez, A. (2022). Incidental vocabulary learning from bilingual subtitled viewing: An eye-tracking study. Language Learning, 72(3), 765–805. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2023). Combining eye-tracking and verbal reports in vocabulary research: Benefits and challenges. Research Methods in Applied Linguistics, 2(3), 1–9. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Warren, P., Boers, F., Grimshaw, G., & Siyanova-Chanturia, A. (2018). The effect of gloss type on learners’ intake of new words during reading: Evidence from eye-tracking. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40(4), 883–906. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Yu, G., He, L., & Isaacs, T. (2017). The cognitive processes of taking IELTS Academic Writing Task 1: An eye-tracking study. IELTS Research Reports Online Series, 2017/2. The IELTS Partners: British Council, Cambridge English Language Assessment and IDP: IELTS Australia. [URL]
Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue