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Article published In: Pragmatics in African Contexts
[Pragmatics and Society 17:2] 2026
► pp. 223–244

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Noun forms of address among matatu touts in multilingual Kenya

Pragmatic functions beyond politeness theory

ORCiD logo with link | University of Bayreuth
Published online: 15 September 2025
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/ps.25063.otu
Abstract
This study examines the noun forms of address (NoFA) used by matatu touts, employees who solicit business for Kenya’s minibuses, to navigate social interactions. It addresses two questions: (i) What noun forms do matatu touts use to hail passengers? (ii) How do these forms align with or diverge from Brown and Levinson’s Politeness Theory, and what do they reveal about power, hierarchy, and cultural norms? The data were collected through soundwalking, observational notes, and audio recordings at three public transport stations in Eldoret, Kenya. A qualitative analysis shows that touts use noun forms in English, Swahili, Sheng (Swahili-English slang), and native languages, including fictive kinship terms, formal titles, status indicators, endearments, physical descriptors, and epithets. These linguistic practices foster social bonds, assert authority, and facilitate economic transactions. Highlighting NoFA’s fluidity and multifunctionality and advocating for broader recognition of informal communication in non-Western settings, this study transcends traditional politeness models.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Noun forms of address
  • 3.Literature review
    • 3.1Theoretical background
    • 3.2Addressing strangers and non-acquaintances across cultures
    • 3.3Linguistic studies on the Kenyan matatu sector
  • 4.Method
  • 5.Noun forms of address used by matatu touts for social navigation
    • 5.1Fictive kinship terms
    • 5.2Formal titles
    • 5.3Status indicators
    • 5.4Terms of endearment
    • 5.5Physical attributes and epithets
    • 5.6Other terms
  • 6.Rethinking Politeness: Noun forms of address, power dynamics, and social negotiation
    • 6.1Fictive kinship terms: Familiarity as a strategic social tool
    • 6.2Formal titles: Politeness as a hybrid linguistic practice
    • 6.3Status indicators: Reinforcing hierarchy through language
    • 6.4Terms of endearment: Between camaraderie and objectification
    • 6.5Physical attributes and epithets: Identity and power in public address
    • 6.6Politeness, impoliteness, and the role of context
  • 7.Conclusion
  • References
References (55)
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