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Article published In: Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area
Vol. 46:1 (2023) ► pp.35–71

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A quaternary epistemic code

The Chhitkul-Rākchham copula system

ORCiD logo with link | New York University Abu Dhabi (NYUAD)
Published online: 12 May 2023
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/ltba.22008.mar
Abstract
Evidentiality has often been described in narrow terms as an independent grammatical category denoting an overt source of information (e.g., perception, inference, assumption and hearsay). Drawing on fieldwork data, this paper explores how evidentiality is encoded at the copula level in Chhitkul-Rākchham (West Himalayish). In doing so, it is argued that the relevant evidentials, part of a comparatively complex scheme consisting of nine elements, together with a negative sub-system, fall under the broader umbrella of epistemic modality. The contention finds an illustration in an egophoric marker following two inflectional tracks with two resulting degrees of assertiveness, and in a handful of combinatorial constructions. Evidentiality as expressed by copulas points to the self, which builds bridges with the study of consciousness. The latter term is underappreciated within linguistics and this work emphasizes the need for a broader cross-disciplinary outlook.
Article outline
  • 1.Introductory observations
  • 2.Chhitkul-Rākchham: Background information, available literature and classification
  • 3.The Chhitkul-Rākchham copula system
    • 3.1Type of copula clause: Syntactic function
    • 3.2Feature of the subject
    • 3.3Tense-aspect
    • 3.4Person of the subject
    • 3.5Specificity
    • 3.6Further observations on the complexity of the system
  • 4.Verb-by-verb description
    • 4.1The t-forms
      • 4.1.1The copula ta
      • 4.1.2The copula to
        • 4.1.2.1The to-(impv)-(agr) track
        • 4.1.2.2The to-ass track
      • 4.1.3The alternant tuts
    • 4.2The ɦ-forms
      • 4.2.1The copula ɦɛn
      • 4.2.2The free variant ɦun – surfacing as ɦunno or ɦunts
    • 4.3The a-forms
      • 4.3.1The copula ano
      • 4.3.2The alternant a: – surfacing as a:no or a:ts
    • 4.4A summary of the copula system: Templates and inflectional categories
      • 4.4.1Mode of expression
      • 4.4.2Inflectional categories
  • 5.The evidential and epistemic distinctions encoded in the copula system
    • 5.1The evidential and epistemic values conveyed by the copulas (including alternants)
      • 5.1.1The evidential (perceptual) copula ta
      • 5.1.2The evidential (egophoric) copula to
      • 5.1.3The assertive alternant tuts
      • 5.1.4The emphatic (assertive) copula ɦɛn
      • 5.1.5The dubitative alternant ɦunno
      • 5.1.6The assertive alternant ɦunts
      • 5.1.7The dubitative copula ano
      • 5.1.8The dubitative alternant a:no
      • 5.1.9The assertive alternant a:ts
    • 5.2On emphasis as assertiveness
    • 5.3A copula system driven by subjectivity
    • 5.4Towards an interpretative framework for evidentiality at the copula level
      • 5.4.1Evidential distinctions and subjective vs. objective epistemic modality
      • 5.4.2A hierarchy of (un)certainty
    • 5.5A few observations on the two-track inflectional pattern to-(impv)-(agr) vs. to-ass
  • 6.Negation
    • 6.1A system of triple negation
    • 6.2Epistemic judgements are just as pervasive as in declaratives
  • 7.Concluding remarks
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • Abbreviations
  • References
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