Article In: Towards an Integrated Approach to Heritage and School Languages in Education Policies: The case of multilingual Geneva
Edited by Claire de Goumoëns, Laurent Gajo and Myriam Radhouane
[Language Problems and Language Planning 49:3] 2025
► pp. 317–335
L’évaluation du langage chez l’élève multilingue
L’apport des évaluations en langue d’origine (EVLO)
This content is being prepared for publication; it may be subject to changes.
Article language: French
Résumé
Dans le cadre d’une politique générale d’intégration des élèves allophones, les difficultés
d’apprentissage langagier chez les élèves multilingues soulèvent des défis spécifiques ; l’évaluation des troubles
du langage doit notamment faire la part des choses entre des difficultés transitoires liées au manque d’exposition à la
seconde langue (en l’occurrence, le français en Suisse romande) et la présence d’un trouble développemental du
langage (TDL) persistant qui affecte environ 8% des enfants d’âge scolaire. Dans ce cas, le trouble est présent dans
toutes les langues parlées par l’enfant.
Plusieurs alternatives existent quant à l’évaluation des troubles du langage chez l’enfant
multilingue. Le « gold standard » consiste à évaluer l’enfant dans toutes ses langues, mais cette option peut être
difficilement réalisable en pratique. Le service enseignement et évaluation du Département de l’instruction publique, de
la formation et de la jeunesse de Genève, a pourtant réussi à mettre au point des évaluations en langue d’origine (EVLO)
pour les élèves non francophones, notamment les élèves qui sont arrivés récemment dans le système d’enseignement genevois.
L’apport de cet outil, bien que perfectible (car non normé), est tout à fait novateur. En effet, en fonction des
informations croisées recueillies pour chaque élève, il peut permettre d’orienter vers un bilan logopédique, mais aussi de
conclure à la « simple » nécessité d’augmenter l’exposition de l’enfant au français (sans qu’il y
ait de troubles par ailleurs). Ces informations croisées permettent aussi de ne pas exclure d’autres sources de
difficultés, indépendamment des langues, et d’orienter ensuite l’élève vers des spécialistes si nécessaire.
La compréhension des EVLO relève d’une importance capitale d’un point de vue sociétal car elles
devraient permettre, à terme, de réduire le nombre d’élèves multilingues suivis en logopédie, sans trouble avéré
(sur-identification de TDL) et d’adresser en logopédie ceux qui en ont réellement besoin (sous-identification du TDL).
Mots clés : élèves, multilingue, évaluation, langage
Abstract
Language assessment for multilingual students: The contribution of assessments in the pupil’s native language (EVLO)
As part of a general policy of integrating allophone pupils, language learning difficulties among
multilingual pupils raise specific challenges; in particular, the assessment of language disorders must distinguish between
transient difficulties linked to lack of exposure to the second language (in this case, French in French-speaking Switzerland) and
the presence of a persistent developmental language disorder (DLD), which affects around 8% of school-aged children. In this case,
the disorder is present in all the languages spoken by the child.
There are several alternatives for assessing language disorders in multilingual children. The “gold
standard” is to assess the child in all his or her languages, but this option may be difficult to implement in practice. The
Teaching and Evaluation Service of the Geneva Department of Education, Training and Youth has, however, succeeded in developing
evaluations in the original language (EVLO) for non-French-speaking pupils, particularly those who have recently arrived in the
Geneva education system. The contribution of this tool, although perfectible (as it is not standardized), is entirely innovative.
Indeed, depending on the cross-referenced information gathered for each pupil, it can lead to a referral for a speech and language
assessment, but also to the conclusion that it is “simply” necessary to increase the child’s exposure to French (without
there being any disorders otherwise). This cross-referenced information also makes it possible not to exclude other sources of
difficulty, irrespective of language, and then to refer the pupil to specialists if necessary.
Understanding EVLOs is of the utmost social importance, as they should make it possible, in the long term,
to reduce the number of multilingual pupils followed up in language therapy without any proven disorder (over-identification of
DLD), and to refer to language therapy those who really need it (under-identification of DLD).
Keywords: pupils, multilingual, assessment, language
Abstraktaĵo
Taksado de lingvaĵo ĉe multlingvaj lernantoj: Liverado de taksoj en la lingvo de origino (EVLO)
Lige kun ĝenerala politiko de integrado de alilingvaj lernantoj, specifajn defiojn levas lingvolernadaj
malfacilaĵoj (t.n. DLD) inter multlingvaj lernantoj. Notinde, pritakso de lingvaj perturboj devas distingi dumtempaj malfacilaĵoj
ligitaj al mankanta malfermo al la dua lingvo (ĉi-kaze la franca en francparolanta Svislando) disde la ĉeesto de persista evoluiga
lingva perturbo, kiu aperas en ĉ. 8 procentoj de infanoj de lerneja aĝo. Ĉi-kaze, la perturbo manifestiĝas en ĉiuj lingvoj kiujn
la infano parolas.
Ekzistas pluraj eblecoj por pritaksi lingvajn perturbojn de multlingvaj infanoj. La “ora normo” estas
pritaksi la infanon en ĉiuj ties lingvoj, sed ties realigo estos eventuale malfacila en la praktiko. Tamen, la Servo pri Instruado
kaj Pritaksado de la Ĝeneva Fako pri Edukado, Trejnado kaj Junularo ja sukcesis evoluigi pritaksojn en la originala lingvo (EVLO)
por ne-francparolantaj lernantoj, precipe tiuj kiuj lastatempe alvenis en la ĝenevan edukan sistemon. La kontribuo de tiu ĉi ilo,
kvankam plibonigebla (ĝi ne estas normigita), estas plene noviga. Fakte, depende de la transe ligita informaro kolektita por ĉiu
lernanto, ĝi kapablas rezultigi direktigon al parola kaj lingva pritakso, sed ankaŭ konstaton, ke “simple” necesas plifortigi la
sperton de la infano pri la franca lingvo (sen apartaj aliaj perturboj). Tiu transe ligita informaro ankaŭ ebligas ne ekskluzivi
aliajn fontojn de malfacilaĵoj, sendepende de lingvaj malfacilaĵoj, kaj sekve direktigi la lernanton al specialistoj
laŭnecese.
La komprenado de EVLOj havas gravegan socian signifon, ĉar ili devus ebligi, longperspektive, redukti la
nombron de multlingvaj lernantoj postsekvataj de lingvoterapiaj servoj sen ajna pruvita perturbo (superindikado de DLD) kaj
direkti al lingvoterapio tiujn kiuj vere bezonas ĝin (subindikado de DLD).
Article outline
- 1.Introduction : Définitions du bilinguisme et contexte à Genève
- 2.Développement du langage dans un contexte de bilinguisme
- 3.Défis actuels dans l’évaluation du langage oral chez l’élève multilingue
- 4.Outils pertinents dans l’évaluation du langage oral chez l’élève multilingue
- 5.Apports des évaluations en langue d’origine : Focalisation sur un dispositif genevois de politique linguistique
- 5.1Présentation des EVLO
- 5.2Avantages
- 5.3Limites et perspectives
- Conclusion
- Remarques
Bibliographie
References (63)
Armon-Lotem, S., de Jong, J. & Meir, N. (2015). Assessing
multilingual children: disentangling bilingualism from Specific Language
Impairment. Multilingual Matters.
Barac, R., Bialystok, E., Castro, D. C., & Sanchez, M. (2014). The
cognitive development of young dual language learners: A critical review. Early childhood
research
quarterly, 29(4), 699–714.
Bialystok, E. (2010). Bilingualism. Wiley
interdisciplinary reviews: Cognitive
science, 1(4), 559–572.
Bird, E. K. R., Cleave, P., Trudeau, N., Thordardottir, E., Sutton, A., & Thorpe, A. (2005). The
language abilities of bilingual children with Down syndrome. American Journal of
Speech-Language
Pathology, 14(3), 187–199.
Bishop, D. V., Snowling, M. J., Thompson, P. A., Greenhalgh, T., & Catalise
Consortium. (2016). CATALISE: A multinational and
multidisciplinary Delphi consensus study. Identifying language impairments in children. PLOS
one, 11(7), e0158753.
Bishop, D. V., Snowling, M. J., Thompson, P. A., Greenhalgh, T., Catalise-2
Consortium, Adams, C., … & house, A. (2017). Phase
2 of CATALISE: A multinational and multidisciplinary Delphi consensus study of problems with language development:
Terminology. Journal of child psychology and
psychiatry, 58(10), 1068–1080.
Cleave, P. L., Bird, E. K. R., Trudeau, N., & Sutton, A. (2014). Syntactic
bootstrapping in children with Down syndrome: The impact of bilingualism. Journal of
communication
disorders, 491, 42–54.
De Cat, C., Kašćelan, D., Prévost, P., Serratrice, L., Tuller, L., & Unsworth, S. (2022). Quantifying
Bilingual EXperience (Q-BEx): questionnaire manual and documentation.
De Houwer, A. (2007). Parental
language input patterns and children’s bilingual use. Applied
psycholinguistics, 28(3), 411–424.
(2015). Harmonious
bilingual development: Young families’ well-being in language contact situations. International
Journal of
Bilingualism, 19(2), 169–184.
(2020). Harmonious
Bilingualism: Well-being for families in bilingual settings. In S. Eisenchlas & A. Schalley (Eds.), Handbook
of Home Language Maintenance and
Development (pp. 63–83). Mouton de Gruyter.
de Jong, J. (2024). Developmental
Language Disorder in a Bilingual Context. In M. J. Ball, N. Müller, & E. Spencer (Eds.), The
Handbook of Clinical Linguistics, Second
Edition (pp. 245–257). John Wiley & Sons.
Delage, H., Hadjadj, O., Matrat, M. & Kehoe, M. (2023). L’évaluation
dynamique du langage oral chez l’enfant : études pilotes. Études de Linguistique
Appliquée, 2101, 197–214.
DIP Genève — DGEO. (2021). Grille
d’évaluation en langue d’origine pour les élèves de 4 à 6 ans [Manuscrit non
publié]. DIP Genève — DGEO.
Dos Santos, C., & Ferré, S. (2018). A
nonword repetition task to assess bilingual children’s phonology. Language
Acquisition, 25(1), 58–71.
Engel, B., Le Roy-Zen Ruffinen, O. et Pont, A. (2023). Diversité
linguistique et sociale des élèves de l’enseignement public. Repères et indicateurs
statistiques, B3, N°
135. Genève: SRED.
Fabiano-Smith, L., & Goldstein, B. A. (2010). Phonological
acquisition in bilingual Spanish–English speaking children. Journal of Speech, Language, and
Hearing
Research, 53(1), 160–178.
Fleckstein, A., Prévost, P., Tuller, L., Sizaret, E., & Zebib, R. (2018). How
to identify SLI in bilingual children: A study on sentence repetition in French. Language
Acquisition, 25(1), 85–101.
Garon, N., Bryson, S. E., & Smith, I. M. (2008). Executive
function in preschoolers: a review using an integrative framework. Psychological
bulletin, 134(1), 31.
Gordon-Dana, C., Bentea, A., & Durrleman, S. (2024). Bilingual
Effects on ToM in Children with DLD. In H. Abdullah Ali AlThagafi & J. Ray (Eds.), Proceedings
of the 48th annual Boston University Conference on Language
Development (pp. 223–234). Cascadilla Press.
Hadjadj, O., Kehoe, M. & Delage, H. (2022). Dynamic
assessment identifies morphosyntactic deficits in mono- and bilingual children with developmental language
disorder. Languages, 7(4), 295.
Hadjadj, O., Kehoe, M., & Delage, H. (2024). Dynamic
assessment of narrative skills for identifying developmental language disorder in monolingual and bilingual French-speaking
children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in
Schools, 55(1), 130–151.
Hampton, S., Rabagliati, H., Sorace, A., & Fletcher-Watson, S. (2017). Autism
and bilingualism: A qualitative interview study of parents’ perspectives and
experiences. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing
Research, 60(2), 435–446.
Hoff, E., Core, C., Place, S., Rumiche, R., Señor, M., & Parra, M. (2012). Dual
language exposure and early bilingual development. Journal of child
language, 39(1), 1–27.
Kehoe, M., & Girardier, C. (2020). What
factors influence phonological production in French-speaking bilingual children, aged three to six
years? Journal of Child
Language, 47(5), 945–981.
Kehoe, M., Matrat, M., & Delage, H. (2024). Dynamic
assessment of phonological awareness in monolingual and bilingual French-speaking
children. Clinical Linguistics &
Phonetics, 1–26.
Kern, S. (à
paraître). Comparaison du développement langagier des enfants monolingues et bilingues :
premières étapes en production et sources de variation. In L. Lucas Plurilingues
en devenir en France et ailleurs. Halshs-04379970.
Macnamara, J. (1967). The
Bilingual’s Linguistic Performance-A Psychological Overview. Journal of social
issues, 23(2).
Matrat, M., Delage, H. & Kehoe, M. (2022). Dynamic
assessment of word learning to diagnose developmental language disorder in French-speaking monolingual and bilingual
children. Languages, 7(3), 181.
(2023). A
new dynamic word learning task to diagnose language disorder in French-speaking monolingual and bilingual
children. Frontiers in Rehabilitation
Sciences, 31:1095023.
Meisel, J. M. (2011). Bilingual
language acquisition and theories of diachronic change: Bilingualism as cause and effect of grammatical
change. Bilingualism: Language and
cognition, 14(2), 121–145.
Moro, M. R., Rezzoug, D., Bennabi-Bensekhar, M., Simon, A., Camara, H., & Rakotomalala, L. (2018). Manuel
de l’Elal d’Avicenne©. Giunti psychometrics.
Mountford, H. S., Braden, R., Newbury, D. F., & Morgan, A. T. (2022). The
genetic and molecular basis of developmental language disorder: A
review. Children, 9(5), 586.
Muñoz, C. (2010). St
Aying Abroad with the Family: A Case Study of two Siblings’ Second Language Development During a year’s
Immersion. International Journal of Applied
Linguistics, 160(1), 24–48.
Oller, D. K., & Eilers, R. E. (Eds.). (2002). Language
and literacy in bilingual
children (Vol. 21). Multilingual Matters.
Ortiz, J. A. (2021). Using
nonword repetition to identify language impairment in bilingual children: A meta-analysis of diagnostic
accuracy. American Journal of Speech-Language
Pathology, 30(5), 2275–2295.
Ortiz, J. A., Nolasco, J. M., Huang, Y. T., & Chow, J. C. (2024). The
use of language sample analysis to differentiate developmental language disorder from typical language in bilingual children:
A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing
Research, 67(10), 3803–3825.
Paradis, J. (2005). Grammatical
morphology in children learning English as a second language. Language, Speech, and Hearing
Services in
Schools, 36(3), 172–187.
(2007). Bilingual
children with specific language impairment: Theoretical and applied issues. Applied
psycholinguistics, 28(3), 551–564.
(2023). Sources
of individual differences in the dual language development of heritage bilinguals. Journal of
Child
Language, 50(4), 793–817.
Paradis, J., Genesee, F., & Crago, M. B. (2021). Dual
language development and disorders: A handbook on bilingualism and second language learning, Third
Edition. Brookes Publishing
Pearson, B. Z., Fernandez, S. C., Lewedeg, V., & Oller, D. K. (1997). The
relation of input factors to lexical learning by bilingual infants. Applied
psycholinguistics, 18(1), 41–58.
Peristeri, E., Vogelzang, M., & Tsimpli, I. M. (2021). Bilingualism
effects on the cognitive flexibility of autistic children: Evidence from verbal dual-task
paradigms. Neurobiology of
Language, 2(4), 558–585.
Place, S., & Hoff, E. (2011). Properties
of dual language exposure that influence 2-year-olds’ bilingual proficiency. Child
development, 82(6), 1834–1849.
(2016). Effects
and noneffects of input in bilingual environments on dual language skills in 2
½-year-olds. Bilingualism: Language and
Cognition, 19(5), 1023–1041.
Py, B., & Gajo, L. (2013). Bilinguisme
et plurilinguisme. In J. Simonin & S. Wharton (Eds.), Sociolinguistique
du contact : dictionnaire des termes et
concepts (pp. 71–94). ENS Editions.
Rezzoug, D., Bennabi-Bensekhar, M., & Moro, M. R. (2018). L’elal
d’Avicenne. L’Autre, 19(2), 142–150.
Rose, K., Armon-Lotem, S., & Altman, C. (2022). Profiling
bilingual children: Using monolingual assessment to inform diagnosis. Language, Speech, and
Hearing Services in
Schools, 53(2), 494–510.
Schulz, P., & Grimm, A. (2019). The
age factor revisited: Timing in acquisition interacts with age of onset in bilingual
acquisition. Frontiers in
psychology, 91, 2732.
Schwob, S., & Skoruppa, K. (2021). L’identification
du trouble développemental du langage oral chez les enfants bilingues français-portugais : les ressources à disposition des
orthophonistes. Canadian Journal of Speech-Language Pathology &
Audiology, 45(4), 251–26.
Stanford, E., Eikerling, M., Hadjadj, O., & Delage, H. (2024). Supporting
multilingual children with language impairment in a multilingual environment: experience and perspectives from speech and
language therapists in Switzerland. International Journal of
Multilingualism, 22(2), 630–649.
Thordardottir, E., & Topbaş, S. (2021). How
aware is the public of the existence, characteristics and causes of language impairment in childhood and where have they heard
about it? A European survey. Journal of communication
disorders, 891, 106057.
Tiulkova, E., Marijanović, V., Camps, J. F., & Köpke, B. (2024). Assessing
the Role of Input Factors in Harmonious Bilingual Development in
Children. Languages, 9(9), 289.
Tuller, L. (2015). Clinical
use of parental questionnaires in multilingual contexts. In S. Armon-Lotem, J. de Jong, & N. Meir (Eds.), Assessing
multilingual children: Disentangling bilingualism from language
impairment (pp. 301–330). Multilingual Matters.
Tuller, L., Abboud, L., Ferré, S., Fleckstein, A., Prévost, P., et al. (2014). Specific
Language Impairment and Bilingualism: Assembling the pieces. In C. Hamann & E. Ruigendijk (Eds.), Language
Acquisition and Development: Proceedings of Gala 2013 (pp. 533–567). Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Tuller, L., Hamann, C., Chilla, S., Ferré, S., Morin, E., Prevost, P., … & Zebib, R. (2018). Identifying
language impairment in bilingual children in France and in Germany. International journal of
language & communication
disorders, 53(4), 888–904.
Wang, M., Jegathesan, T., Young, E., Huber, J., & Minhas, R. (2018). Raising
children with autism spectrum disorders in monolingual vs bilingual homes: A scoping
review. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral
Pediatrics, 39(5), 434–446.
