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In:Complexity Theory and Language Development: In celebration of Diane Larsen-Freeman
Edited by Lourdes Ortega and ZhaoHong Han
[Language Learning & Language Teaching 48] 2017
► pp. 11–50

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Chapter 1
Complexity Theory

The lessons continue

 | University of Michigan
Published online: 1 November 2017
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https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.48.02lar
Abstract
Interest in Complexity Theory (CT) is growing. This is not surprising, considering the state of the modern world – its dynamism, interconnectivity, mobile populations, changing climate, pattern of unintentional consequences, space-time compression, and technological innovation. These qualities make the non-reductionist, ecological, dynamic systems view that CT affords appropriate for our post-structural times. This is not to say that CT is without antecedents in history, some of which are mentioned in the chapter. I also relate how I have come to see CT as a metatheory. A metatheory has wide, transdisciplinary implications. Nevertheless, a metatheory still warrants object theories: in the case of second language development, a theory of language and a theory of learning. These are discussed here as thirty aphorisms. Also taken up are additional lessons afforded by the theory, specifically, overcoming dualities, the need to distinguish a focal system from its environment for the purposes of investigation, and how generalizability can be achieved.
Article outline
  • Introduction
  • Complexity Theory: What is it?
  • My connection
  • What paradigm is CT attempting to shift?
  • Taking stock
  • The lessons continue
    • Lesson 1.CT invites us to “interrogate dichotomies” (Morin, 2007). How can we do this and what can we learn from doing so?
    • Lesson 2.If everything is connected to everything else, how can you distinguish a system from its environment?
    • Lesson 3.If we reject simple linear causality, do we have to give up on generalizability?
  • Conclusion
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • References
References (225)
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2022. Proficiency development and smartphone usage in study abroad: Microgenetic longitudinal case studies of French learners. Foreign Language Annals 55:2 ► pp. 455 ff. DOI logo
Pallotti, Gabriele
2022. Cratylus’ silence: On the philosophy and methodology of Complex Dynamic Systems Theory in SLA. Second Language Research 38:3 ► pp. 689 ff. DOI logo
Peng, Zhiyang & Aek Phakiti
2022. What a Directed Motivational Current Is to Language Teachers. RELC Journal 53:1 ► pp. 9 ff. DOI logo
Perozzo, Reiner Vinicius & Felipe Flores Kupske
2022. berço colonial à dinâmica não linear. Letrônica 15:1 ► pp. e42641 ff. DOI logo
Piccardo, Enrica, Marina Antony-Newman, Rebecca Schmor, Geoff Lawrence, Angelica Galante, Aline Germain-Rutherford & Andre Scholze
2022. All Things Interconnected: Activating Holistic, Dynamic and Diverse Perspectives in the Enactment of Innovative Language Education. In Activating Linguistic and Cultural Diversity in the Language Classroom [Educational Linguistics, 55], ► pp. 285 ff. DOI logo
Piccardo, Enrica & Coralie Payre-Ficout
2022. Plurilingualism: Integrating Languages and Cultures in a Personally Reflective, and Socially Mediated Process. In Activating Linguistic and Cultural Diversity in the Language Classroom [Educational Linguistics, 55], ► pp. 15 ff. DOI logo
Seba, Adson Luan Duarte Vilasboas & Valdir Silva
2022. Um estudo de caso sobre as tecnologias digitais e o ensino de línguas estrangeiras em uma escola do campo no município de Cáceres-MT. Letras de Hoje 57:1 ► pp. e41956 ff. DOI logo
Yezdani, Omer, Louis Sanzogni & Luke Houghton
2022. Emergent strategy and cascading behaviour patterns during crises: evidence from Brisbane’s 2011 floods. Australasian Journal of Environmental Management 29:2 ► pp. 134 ff. DOI logo
Zhang, Chao
2022. Multidimensional interaction of L2 writing fluency and cohesion: A complexity theory perspective. Southern African Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 40:4 ► pp. 397 ff. DOI logo
Abendroth-Timmer, Dagmar & David Gerlach
2021. Handlungsorientierte Spracharbeit. In Handlungsorientierung im Fremdsprachenunterricht, ► pp. 97 ff. DOI logo
Al-Hoorie, Ali H., Phil Hiver, Tae-Young Kim & Peter I. De Costa
2021. The Identity Crisis in Language Motivation Research. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 40:1 ► pp. 136 ff. DOI logo
Bouchard, Jérémie
2021. Complex Systems and Social/Cultural Morphogenesis. In Complexity, Emergence, and Causality in Applied Linguistics, ► pp. 297 ff. DOI logo
Bouchard, Jérémie
2021. The Need for a Renewed Applied Linguistics. In Complexity, Emergence, and Causality in Applied Linguistics, ► pp. 27 ff. DOI logo
Bouchard, Jérémie
2021. Introduction. In Complexity, Emergence, and Causality in Applied Linguistics, ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Bülow, Lars & Simone E. Pfenninger
2021. Introduction: Reconciling approaches to intra-individual variation in psycholinguistics and variationist sociolinguistics. Linguistics Vanguard 7:s2 DOI logo
Chang, Pengyun & Lawrence Jun Zhang
2021. A CDST Perspective on Variability in Foreign Language Learners’ Listening Development. Frontiers in Psychology 12 DOI logo
Gao, Yang & Yafang Zhou
2021. Exploring Language Teachers' Beliefs About the Medium of Instruction and Actual Practices Using Complex Dynamic System Theory. Frontiers in Education 6 DOI logo
Hartmann, Stefan
2021. Diachronic Cognitive Linguistics. Yearbook of the German Cognitive Linguistics Association 9:1 ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Hiver, Phil, Zach Whiteside, Ana C. Sánchez Solarte & Claudia J. Kim
2021. Language teacher metacognition: beyond the mirror. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 15:1 ► pp. 52 ff. DOI logo
Liu, Di
2021. Prosody transfer failure despite cross-language similarities. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation 7:1 ► pp. 38 ff. DOI logo
Liu, Di & Marnie Reed
2021. Exploring the Complexity of the L2 Intonation System: An Acoustic and Eye-Tracking Study. Frontiers in Communication 6 DOI logo
McGregor, Alison
2021. Commentary: “Vowel Quality and Direction of Stress Shift in a Predictive Model Explaining the Varying Impact of Misplaced Word Stress: Evidence From English” and “Exploring the Complexity of the L2 Intonation System: An Acoustic and Eye-Tracking Study”. Frontiers in Communication 6 DOI logo
Melo-Pfeifer, Sílvia
2021. Understanding Dominant Language Constellations Through Analysis of Visual Linguistic Autobiographies by Foreign Language Student Teachers in Germany. In Dominant Language Constellations Approach in Education and Language Acquisition [Educational Linguistics, 51], ► pp. 203 ff. DOI logo
Melo-Pfeifer, Sílvia
2023. The Dynamics of Dominant Language Constellations: Moments of Linguistic ‘Ecological Transition’ as Portrayed by Pre-service Language Teachers. In Language Awareness and Identity [Multilingual Education, 45], ► pp. 247 ff. DOI logo
Morales-López, Esperanza
2021. Form-function dialectics in the analysis of irony in political discourse. Revista Española de Lingüística Aplicada/Spanish Journal of Applied Linguistics 34:2 ► pp. 527 ff. DOI logo
Pfenninger, Simone E.
2021. About the INTER and the INTRA in age-related research: Evidence from a longitudinal CLIL study with dense time serial measurements. Linguistics Vanguard 7:s2 DOI logo
Pfenninger, Simone E.
2022. Emergent bilinguals in a digital world: a dynamic analysis of long-term L2 development in (pre)primary school children. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 60:1 ► pp. 41 ff. DOI logo
Weng, Zhenjie & Mark A. McGuire
2021. Developing Teaching Expertise Through Transnational Experience: Implications for TESOL Teacher Education. In Mobility of Knowledge, Practice and Pedagogy in TESOL Teacher Education, ► pp. 311 ff. DOI logo
Xiao, Hao-Zhang, Chen-Yu Dai & Li-Zheng Dong
2021. The development of interlanguage pragmatic markers in alignment with role relationships. Pragmatics. Quarterly Publication of the International Pragmatics Association (IPrA) 31:4 ► pp. 617 ff. DOI logo
Yang, Jianbo
2021. Revisiting Research Methods in Language Learning Psychology From a Complexity Dynamic System Theory Perspective. Frontiers in Psychology 12 DOI logo
Zhang, Chao & Gengxin Sun
2021. Strange Attractors in Writing Competence Development from the Perspective of Complexity Theory Based on Sensor Data. Journal of Sensors 2021:1 DOI logo
Evans, D. Reid & Diane Larsen-Freeman
2020. Bifurcations and the Emergence of L2 Syntactic Structures in a Complex Dynamic System. Frontiers in Psychology 11 DOI logo
Fogal, Gary G
2020. Investigating Variability in L2 Development: Extending a Complexity Theory Perspective on L2 Writing Studies and Authorial Voice. Applied Linguistics 41:4 ► pp. 575 ff. DOI logo
Fogal, Gary G.
2022. System mapping simplex spaces: facilitating change in L2 educational contexts from a complexity theory perspective. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 60:1 ► pp. 103 ff. DOI logo
Fogal, Gary G.
2022. System mapping simplex spaces: facilitating change in L2 educational contexts from a complexity theory perspective. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 60:1 ► pp. 103 ff. DOI logo
Fogal, Gary G.
2022. Second language writing from a complex dynamic systems perspective. Language Teaching 55:2 ► pp. 193 ff. DOI logo
Gurzynski-Weiss, Laura
2020. Introducing cross-theoretical explorations of interlocutors and their individual differences. In Cross-theoretical Explorations of Interlocutors and Their Individual Differences [Language Learning & Language Teaching, 53], ► pp. 3 ff. DOI logo
Levine, Glenn S.
2020. References. The Modern Language Journal 104:S1 ► pp. 103 ff. DOI logo
PAPI, MOSTAFA & PHIL HIVER
2020. Language Learning Motivation as a Complex Dynamic System: A Global Perspective of Truth, Control, and Value. The Modern Language Journal 104:1 ► pp. 209 ff. DOI logo
Rosmawati, R.
2020. Profiling the dynamic changes of syntactic complexity in L2 academic writing. In Complex Dynamic Systems Theory and L2 Writing Development [Language Learning & Language Teaching, 54], ► pp. 109 ff. DOI logo
Rostami, Farzad & Mohammad Hosssein Yousefi
2020. Iranian novice English teachers’ agency construction: the complexity dynamic/system perspective. Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education 5:1 DOI logo
ZHENG, YONGYAN, XIUCHUAN LU & WEI REN
2020. Tracking the Evolution of Chinese Learners’ Multilingual Motivation Through a Longitudinal Q Methodology. The Modern Language Journal 104:4 ► pp. 781 ff. DOI logo
Alves, Ubiratã Kickhöfel , Luciene Bassols Brisolara, Leonardo Cláudio Da Rosa & Ana Carolina Signor Buske
2019. Efeitos da duração do vozeamento da fricativa [z] na identificação por brasileiros, de pares mínimos produzidos por hispânicos. Insumos para a discussão sobre inteligibilidade de fala estrangeira. Diacrítica 32:2 ► pp. 437 ff. DOI logo
Belletti, Thais de Freitas Mondini
2019. O conceito de 'jeitinho brasileiro' no âmbito do ensino de português LE/L2. Para além dos lugares-comuns. Diacrítica 32:2 ► pp. 437 ff. DOI logo
Bülow, Lars, Hannes Scheutz & Dominik Wallner
2019. Variation and change of plural verbs in Salzburg’s base dialects. In Morphological Variation [Studies in Language Companion Series, 207], ► pp. 95 ff. DOI logo
Fogal, Gary G. & Richard S. Pinner
2019. Exploring Literary Texts as a Tool for Developing L2 Oral Proficiency. In Literature, Spoken Language and Speaking Skills in Second Language Learning, ► pp. 202 ff. DOI logo
Kostoulas, Achilleas
2019. Boundaries Crossed, and New Frontiers: Ongoing Theoretical, Empirical, and Pedagogical Issues in Language Education. In Challenging Boundaries in Language Education [Second Language Learning and Teaching, ], ► pp. 247 ff. DOI logo
Kubanyiova, Magdalena
2019. Language Teacher Motivation Research: Its Ends, Means and Future Commitments. In The Palgrave Handbook of Motivation for Language Learning, ► pp. 389 ff. DOI logo
MACINTYRE, PETER D., TAMMY GREGERSEN & SARAH MERCER
2019. Setting an Agenda for Positive Psychology in SLA: Theory, Practice, and Research. The Modern Language Journal 103:1 ► pp. 262 ff. DOI logo
MATSUMOTO, YUMI
2019. Material Moments: Teacher and Student Use of Materials in Multilingual Writing Classroom Interactions. The Modern Language Journal 103:1 ► pp. 179 ff. DOI logo
MATSUMOTO, YUMI
2021. Student Self‐Initiated Use of Smartphones in Multilingual Writing Classrooms: Making Learner Agency and Multiple Involvements Visible. The Modern Language Journal 105:S1 ► pp. 142 ff. DOI logo
Michaelson, Valerie, William Pickett & Colleen Davison
2019. The history and promise of holism in health promotion. Health Promotion International 34:4 ► pp. 824 ff. DOI logo
Pfenninger, Simone E. & David Singleton
2019. A critical review of research relating to the learning, use and effects of additional and multiple languages in later life. Language Teaching 52:4 ► pp. 419 ff. DOI logo
Taniguchi, Kazumi
2019. Language Acquisition: A Systemic View from Cognitive Linguistics. In A Systems Approach to Language Pedagogy [Translational Systems Sciences, 17], ► pp. 11 ff. DOI logo
Byrnes, Heidi
2018. Advanced‐Level Grammatical Development in Instructed SLA. In The Handbook of Advanced Proficiency in Second Language Acquisition, ► pp. 131 ff. DOI logo
Byrnes, Heidi
2019. Affirming the context of instructed SLA: The potential of curricular thinking. Language Teaching Research 23:4 ► pp. 514 ff. DOI logo
Byrnes, Heidi
2020. Envisioning L2 writing development in CDST under a curricular optic. In Complex Dynamic Systems Theory and L2 Writing Development [Language Learning & Language Teaching, 54], ► pp. 241 ff. DOI logo
Byrnes, Heidi
2020. Toward an agenda for researching L2 writing and language learning. In Writing and Language Learning [Language Learning & Language Teaching, 56], ► pp. 73 ff. DOI logo
Byrnes, Heidi
2021. Review of Webster & Cloran (2019): Describing language: Form and function, volume 5 in the collected works of Ruqaiya Hasan. Language, Context and Text. The Social Semiotics Forum 3:1 ► pp. 174 ff. DOI logo
Cuéllar, Lourdes & Rebecca L. Oxford
2018. Language Teachers’ Emotions: Emerging from the Shadows. In Emotions in Second Language Teaching, ► pp. 53 ff. DOI logo
Annick De Houwer & Lourdes Ortega
2018. The Cambridge Handbook of Bilingualism, DOI logo
Han, ZhaoHong
2018. Task-Based Learning in Task-Based Teaching: Training Teachers of Chinese as a Foreign Language. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 38 ► pp. 162 ff. DOI logo
Han, ZhaoHong
2021. Usage-based instruction, systems thinking, and the role of Language Mining in second language development. Language Teaching 54:4 ► pp. 502 ff. DOI logo
Larsen-Freeman, Diane
2018. Task repetition or task iteration?. In Learning Language through Task Repetition [Task-Based Language Teaching, 11], ► pp. 311 ff. DOI logo
Larsen-Freeman, Diane
2018. Resonances: Second Language Development and Language Planning and Policy from a Complexity Theory Perspective. In Language Policy and Language Acquisition Planning [Language Policy, 15], ► pp. 203 ff. DOI logo
Larsen-Freeman, Diane
2020. Complexity Theory. In Cross-theoretical Explorations of Interlocutors and Their Individual Differences [Language Learning & Language Teaching, 53], ► pp. 189 ff. DOI logo
Larsen-Freeman, Diane
2021. A Complex Dynamic Systems Perspective to Researching Language Classroom Dynamics. In Research Questions in Language Education and Applied Linguistics [Springer Texts in Education, ], ► pp. 793 ff. DOI logo
Larsen‐Freeman, Diane
2018. Second Language Acquisition, WE, and language as a complex adaptive system (CAS). World Englishes 37:1 ► pp. 80 ff. DOI logo
Larsen‐Freeman, Diane
2018. Looking ahead: Future directions in, and future research into, second language acquisition. Foreign Language Annals 51:1 ► pp. 55 ff. DOI logo
Larsen‐Freeman, Diane
2020. Chaos/Complexity Theory for Second Language Acquisition/Development. In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
LARSEN–FREEMAN, DIANE
2019. On Language Learner Agency: A Complex Dynamic Systems Theory Perspective. The Modern Language Journal 103:S1 ► pp. 61 ff. DOI logo
Ortega, Lourdes
2018. Ontologies of language, Second Language Acquisition, and world Englishes. World Englishes 37:1 ► pp. 64 ff. DOI logo
ORTEGA, LOURDES
2019. SLA and the Study of Equitable Multilingualism. The Modern Language Journal 103:S1 ► pp. 23 ff. DOI logo
Sridhar, S.N. & Kamal K. Sridhar
2018. Coda 2 A bridge half‐built: Toward a holistic theory of Second Language Acquisition and world Englishes. World Englishes 37:1 ► pp. 127 ff. DOI logo
Ishikawa, Tomokazu
2017. Conceptualising English as a global contact language. Englishes in Practice 4:2 ► pp. 31 ff. DOI logo
Ishikawa, Tomokazu
2020. Complexity of English as a Multilingua Franca: Place of Monolingual Standard English. In English as a Lingua Franca in Japan, ► pp. 91 ff. DOI logo
Ishikawa, Tomokazu
2021. Global Englishes and ‘Japanese English’. Asian Englishes 23:1 ► pp. 15 ff. DOI logo
Ishikawa, Tomokazu
2024. Reconceptualizing the E in EMI in Higher Education. In Contemporary Perspectives on English as a Medium of Instruction, ► pp. 59 ff. DOI logo
[no author supplied]
2025. Social Aspects. In The Cambridge Handbook of Technology in Language Teaching and Learning, ► pp. 231 ff. DOI logo
[no author supplied]
2025. Laying the Foundations. In The Cambridge Handbook of Technology in Language Teaching and Learning, ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 26 november 2025. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.

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