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Article published In: Language and Linguistics
Vol. 18:1 (2017) ► pp.26–71

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Structure of numerals and classifiers in Chinese

Historical and typological perspectives and cross-linguistic implications

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Published online: 12 January 2017
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https://doi.org/10.1075/lali.18.1.02her
Abstract
It is controversial whether a classifier (C) or measure word (M) in Chinese forms a constituent first with Num (numeral) or N in a [Num C/M N] phrase. This paper reviews evidence for the [Num C/M] constituency from modern Chinese and then provides evidence from historical and typological perspectives. Under the [Num C/M] constituency, not only the C/M word orders attested in Chinese history, but also all those attested elsewhere, can be straightforwardly accounted for by the head parameter, while such simplicity is unattainable under the [C/M N] constituency. In addition, fresh evidence is obtained from the internal word order within a complex numeral; e.g. san-shi ‘30’ is base-final, with n (3) and base (10) entering into a multiplicative function, 3×10. The same multiplicative function exists between Num and C/M, e.g. san-duo hua ‘3 C flower’ = 3×1 flower, and san-da hua ‘3 dozen flower’ = 3×12 flower. C/M and bases are thus unified as multiplicands, an insight further supported by the consistent correlation between the base-final order and the C/M-final order throughout the history of Chinese. A closer examination of the 103 classifier languages in 1990[1978]. Generalizations about numeral systems. On Language. Selected Writings of Joseph H. Greenberg, ed. by Keith Denning & Suzanne Kemmer, 271–309. Originally published in Universals of Human Language: Word Structure, ed. by Joseph H. Greenberg, Charles A. Fergson & Edith A. Moravcsik, Vol 31, 249–295. Stanford: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar further reveals that, among the 52 languages whose numeral systems and C/M word orders can be obtained, the synchronization between the numeral base and C/M is nearly universal. The base-C/M unification as multiplicands and base-C/M synchronization in word order strongly suggest that Num and C/M form a single constituent.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Differences and similarities between C and M
    • 2.1Semantic distinction between C/M
    • 2.2C/M’s mathematical properties: convergence and divergence
    • 2.3C/M’s differences in scope phenomena
    • 2.4C/M’s common properties
  • 3.Controversy over C/M constituency
  • 4.Internal structure of numerals and C/M constituency
    • 4.1Internal word orders in multiplicative numerals and word orders of C/M in Chinese
    • 4.2Numerals and C/M in Tibeto-Burman
    • 4.3Apparent counterexamples: languages with [C/M N Num], Num = 1
  • 5.Evidence from word order variations in history
  • 6.Cross-linguistic implications
    • 6.1Correlation between the C/M-parameter and the base-parameter
    • 6.2A survey based on Greenberg’s (1990[1972]) 103 classifier languages
    • 6.3Established C/M word orders and [Num C/M] constituency
  • 7.Conclusion
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • References
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