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Article published In: Language and Linguistics
Vol. 27:2 (2026) ► pp.302–323

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Dynamics of L3 lexical representations of Dutch-English-Mandarin trilinguals

ORCiD logo with link | University of Shanghai for Science and Technology
ORCiD logo with link | City University of Hong Kong
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Available under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) 4.0 license.

For any use beyond this license, please contact the publisher at rights@benjamins.nl.

Published online: 6 February 2026
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https://doi.org/10.1075/lali.00258.ji
Abstract
Features and structures of mental lexicon representation are fundamental in psycholinguistics. However, previous investigations into third language acquisition have varied widely in their results and have seldom involved Mandarin as the L3 of participants. In addition, explorations into how mental lexicon representation develops are far from sufficient. In light of the above, this study investigates 72 Dutch-English-Mandarin trilinguals with beginner and advanced Mandarin levels and combines questionnaires, interviews, and priming experiments to explore the dynamic and static features of L3 lexical representations. Results suggest that lexical representations of their three languages are separate to some extent. Links among the three lexical stores seem to exist, with differing strengths. The link between L2 (the instructional language) and L3 may possibly be slightly stronger than that between L1 and L3 for participants of both Mandarin levels. As trilinguals improve their L3 level, the L1-L3 link strengthens, and the asymmetry may gradually diminish.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Methods
    • 2.1Participants
    • 2.2Materials
    • 2.3Procedure
  • 3.Results
    • 3.1Results for baseline testing
      • 3.1.1ER data and analyses
      • 3.1.2RT data and analyses
      • 3.1.3Summary
    • 3.2Results for main experiments
      • 3.2.1ER data and analyses
      • 3.2.2RT data and analyses
  • 4.General discussion
  • 5.Conclusion
  • Acknowledgements
  • References
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