In:Negation, Expectation and Ideology in Written Texts: A textual and communicative perspective
Lisa Nahajec
[Linguistic Approaches to Literature 38] 2021
► pp. 213–218
Index
Published online: 24 June 2021
https://doi.org/10.1075/lal.38.index
https://doi.org/10.1075/lal.38.index
A
- absolute negators54, 58–60, 93–4, 129
- accommodation, negative7, 11, 119–20, 145, 191
- Accommodation, Rule of (Lewis)110, 119
- actors, in advertisements168–9
- actual absencesee possible presence and actual absence
- advertising14, 130, 150–1, 152, 161–73, 173–6, 179, 204
- affirmation21, 51, 192
- and approximate negators2, 72–4, 91
- cognitive processing of24–7, 32
- as denial51, 58, 116
- negation as48–9, 51, 61
- affixal/morphological negators49, 54, 57, 60–6
- in advertising166, 167
- in anaphoric reference29–30
- in embedded negation30, 155, 184–5
- in mayoral election campaign180–2, 187, 192, 195, 197
- and mental spaces41–2
- and negative force93
- and semantic scope85–9
- Afghanistan13–14, 154–5
- Allwood, Jens99
- almost2, 15–16, 73, 74, 92, 93, 94–5, 156–7, 180see also approximate/quasi negators
- alternativity7–8, 10–11, 42–3, 79–80, 87–9see also duality
- ambiguity and presupposition107–9
- analytic syntactic negators184–5, 187, 192, 195, 196–7, 204
- anaphoric reference25, 27–30
- antiperspirant advertising150–1, 163, 167–8, 176, 204
- approximate/quasi negators54, 58, 71–4, 156–7, 181, 184–5, 187, 192, 197see also almost
- Aristotle5, 119
- atheism154
- attenuated force155–7
- attributed speech179–80
- Austen, Jane, Sense and Sensibility8
- Aviva advert168–70
B
- Bach, B.103
- background knowledge11, 117–18, 135, 137, 138–43, 158–9
- and ideology136, 144–6, 148
- in mayoral election campaign185–6
- background norms35–7, 43, 154–5, 158–9, 164–5, 170–2
- ‘backstage’ cognitive processes22–3
- Bailin, A.33, 35
- Balls, Ed126
- banking168–70, 176
- Bauer, L. and Huddleston, R.63, 65
- Bell, A.179
- Belsey, C.12, 14
- Berry, Sian178, 182, 183, 185, 186, 197
- Bignell, J.161
- Black Magic Box172
- ‘bleaching’ of semantic content68–9, 79
- body image152, 167
- Bolinger, D.91
- boundedness77–8
- Braun shaver advert164–5
- bridges, London145
- Brierley, S.172, 175
- Brown, Gordon157
- Bush, George W.29, 32
C
- Campbell, Alistair151–2
- candidates for London mayoral elections182, 183–99see also Berry, Sian; Johnson, Boris; Livingstone, Ken; Paddick, Brian
- cause and effect expectations in science153
- ‘characterisation’ variation85–6
- chocolate advertising170–2
- ‘classification’ variation85–6
- Cleese, John3
- Clinton, Hillary13–14, 155
- clown imagery1, 134, 144, 147, 169, 183, 186–7, 190–2
- cognitive linguistics and processing negation21–7
- cohesion, textual27
- ‘common sense’ notions12–14
- comparisons, negated32
- complaints111, 114
- complementarity62, 64, 65, 84–6, 93
- conceptual practice, negation as13, 41–4, 104, 106–7, 109, 134, 189, 190–1, 196–200, 203
- conditionality76, 79–82, 92–3
- Conservative Party, UK178, 201
- constraints, discourse46, 82, 88–9
- containment and boundedness77–8
- context198, 204
- contextual negators180, 181, 182, 184, 187, 191, 204
- and expectations109–21
- and implicatures98–107, 121–34
- processing times and plausibility of23–5
- and retention of negated concepts31–2
- contextual frames theory22
- ‘contrary, on the’41–2
- contrary antecedents/contrariness28
- contrastive stress84
- conventional implicatures101–4, 107–9
- conversational implicatures98–101, 126, 134
- co-operation, linguistic133
- Co-operative Principle (CP) (Grice)98–101, 126, 204
- co-text87, 116, 125, 127, 197, 198
- counterfactuality42, 47, 79–82
- ‘covertly negative lexical items’ (Huddleston and Pullum)70–1
- critical linguistics12–13
- critical stylistics17
- ‘crook, I am not a’ (Nixon)10
- Cruse, D. A.67
- cultural knowledge117–18see also background knowledge
- cultural norms154–5, 159, 171–2
D
- Daily Mail74, 178
- Dancygier, B.7–8, 9, 47, 75, 80–1, 92
- Davis132
- definitions of negation3–4, 13, 51–2
- and affixes65–6
- other research approaches to46–51
- denial2, 28, 51, 52n7, 58, 113–14, 115, 116, 151–2
- deodorant advertising150–1, 163, 167–8, 176, 204
- Die Hard (film)118
- diet products152
- discursive deictic centre (O’Driscoll)153–5
- distance, metaphorical77, 90, 91–2, 93–5
- ‘Dog Poo Fairy’174–5
- Donne, John, ‘No man is an island’33
- ‘don’t mention the war’ (Fawlty Towers)3
- ‘don’t vote for a joke’ (Livingstone)147–8, 179
- double negation42, 67, 90–1, 94
- doubt71
- ‘drama’14, 172–3, 176
- duality10, 21–44, 203–4
- DuBois31
E
- eating as a problem166
- election campaign for London mayor 20081–2, 110, 120, 133–4, 156–9, 177–201, 205
- projected expectations of144–5, 147–8, 185–90, 193–5
- ellipsis28–30
- embedded negation115, 155, 184, 192–3, 205
- in implicatures87, 91–5
- morphological30, 155, 184–5
- phrasal194
- pragmatic199
- in speech181–2
- emphasis122–3
- and negative force79, 88–94
- Ernest Jones advertising162
- erosion to strength of negators79
- evaluation, use of negation in8, 123n27, 132–3, 146–50, 169–70, 200
- and doubt70–1
- in mayoral election campaign185–9, 192–3, 196
- Evening Standard76, 123–4, 156, 178
- on Boris Johnson126, 188–90, 192
- on Brian Paddick197–9
- on Ken Livingstone158, 179, 192, 193–5
- evoked possible presencesee possible presence and actual absence
- expectations created through negation7, 8, 9, 203–4
- in critical linguistic approaches12–13
- figure and ground model36–7
- in ideal and actual readers/hearers9, 11, 135, 136, 139–43, 151–5
- and the implied reader15
- in linguistic polyphony9–10
- nature of what is expected115–21
- nature of who expects105, 109–14
- schema theory138–43
- in social assumptions12–14
- experimental research on processing negation21, 23–7
- expletive negators75, 76, 78–9, 94
F
- fail30, 53, 66–70, 92–3, 102–3, 198
- Fairclough, N.12–13
- far from16
- Fauconnier, G.22, 38
- Fawlty Towers (BBC sitcom)3
- figure and ground model35–7, 44
- financial services companies168–70, 176
- Financial Times189, 190, 193, 195
- Finegold, Oliver158, 159
- food as a problem166
- force, variable15, 46, 72–4, 82, 89–95, 128–9, 155–8, 204
- ‘foreshadowing’ effect8
- former, affixes denoting64–6
- forms, variable15, 82, 128–9, 204
- and ideology155–9
- motivations for45–7
- Forster, E.M., A Passage to India120
- Fowler, R.179
- French language75n19
- FT.com157
- ‘fuzzy negators’ (Tottie)71–4
G
- Gazdar, G.106, 108
- gender and negation170–2, 175
- Gimson, Andrew189
- Giora, R.24, 26, 29, 31–2, 34–5, 41, 132
- Givón, T.97
- on ‘bleaching’68–9
- on change and stasis35–6, 43
- on expectations105, 110, 114, 116, 117, 127
- on forms of negation47, 50–1, 58, 102
- on negative force91–3, 94, 157
- on scope of negation83–4
- GlaxoSmithKlein166
- Goldacre, Ben152–3
- gradability61
- and implicature121–3
- with morphological negation57, 64–5
- of prefixes93
- and semantic scope84–6
- versus variable force89–91
- grammatical occurences of negation49, 67, 68–9, 77–9
- anaphoric reference27–8
- ellipsis28–30
- grammaticalised metaphors2, 15, 53, 73, 75–9, 93–4, 122–3, 129
- Green Party, UK178, 182, 197
- Greenpeace146–7
- Grice, H. P.33
- Co-operative Principle98–101, 126, 204
- maxims98–102, 126–7, 128, 132, 134, 147, 150
- The Guardian172, 188, 189
H
- Halliday, M. A. K. and Hasan, R.27
- Halliday’s Systematic functional grammar131n28
- Hamawand, Z.61, 62–3, 65
- Harper Lee, To Kill a Mockingbird111–12, 118
- Harrison, Andrew172
- Hasson, U. and Glucksberg, S.25
- Heller, Joseph, Catch-226, 7, 138–9
- The Herald190
- Hidalgo-Downing, L.6, 7, 11, 48, 50, 67, 95, 121, 135, 138–9
- Hitler, Adolf32
- Hodge, R. and Kress, G.1, 13, 142, 204
- Language as ideology12, 14–15
- homeopathy153
- Horn, Lawrence205
- on denial114
- on implicatures102, 108, 122n23
- A Natural History of Negation3, 5n1
- on NPIs75, 78–9
- on prefixes123n27
- on reversal64n14
- on semantic scope85n23
- on variable force91
- Huddleston, R. and Pullum, G.49–50, 51, 53–9, 70–2, 82, 83
- humour118–19, 134, 175
- hypernegation90, 94
- hypothesising79–82, 92
I
- ideal readers/hearers
- construction of11, 119–20, 133, 144, 150–1, 159, 200
- and expectations109–14, 127
- overlap between135, 136, 139–43, 151–5, 171, 172–3, 189–90
- ideology, role of negation in11–15, 151–9, 204
- in advertising162–3
- and background knowledge136–7, 144–6, 148
- and imperatives149–50
- imperative structures130–3, 146–50, 169–70, 179
- implicatures3, 15–16, 49, 52–3, 66, 70–81, 97–112, 121–35
- in advertising164–70
- and metaphoric interpretations33–5
- and negative force92, 94–5
- and negative imperatives147–51
- and past tense conditionals157–9
- implicit expectations12–13, 117–19, 121
- The Independent193
- ‘indirect negative expressions’ (Yamanashi)77
- inferencing157–8
- inherent negators66–71, 83, 92–3, 130, 131
- innocent62
- institutions and advertising168–70
- intention and imperatives131–3, 146–7, 149–50
- interpersonality of imperatives149
- interpreting negation121–33
- intersubjectivity39–41, 43, 44
- intertextuality152
- The Irish Times179, 195, 197
- Islam146
- ‘island, no man is an’ (Donne)33
- Israel154
J
- Jeffries, L.
- on ‘conceptual practice’4
- on construction of ideal readers114
- on forms of negation45
- on gradability64, 85n22
- on ideology137, 147–8
- on language and ideology12–15
- on potential presence121–2
- on schema theory135, 139–40
- on semantic negation68, 69
- on textual vehicles52, 79
- Jespersen, O.78–9, 90
- Jespersen’s Cycle75
- John West tuna14, 172–3
- Johnson, Boris1–2, 76, 116, 126–9, 134, 144, 147–8, 178, 182–93, 195–6, 198–200, 205
- ‘joke, don’t vote for a’ (Livingstone)147–8, 179
- ‘joke, this election is not a’ (Livingstone)1–2, 110, 120, 133–4, 144–5, 180
- Jordan, M.116, 117
- Joyce, James, The Two Gallants9, 10–11
K
- Karttunen, L. and Peters, S.102–4, 106
- Kaup, B.23–4, 25
- Keep Britain Tidy174–5
- ‘king of France’ example of ambiguity107–8
- Kiparsky, P. and Condoravdi, C.79
- Kjellmer, G.85
- Klima, E.48–9
- ‘knockout’ constraints (Tottie)46, 88
- Kress, G.136
- Kripke, S.5
L
- Labour Party, UK177–8
- lack187–9, 191–2
- Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M.78
- Langacker, R. W.38, 43
- Leech, G.100–1, 112, 125, 204
- Levine, W. H. and Hagaman, J.25, 27
- Levinson, S.2, 102, 107
- and Annamalai, E.106–7
- Lewis, D.119
- lexicalisation61, 62, 63
- Liberal-Democrat Party, UK178, 197
- literal interpretations33–5
- literary texts6–11, 14
- Livingstone, Ken126, 129, 158–9, 177–8, 182–6, 192–6, 198–200, 205
- ‘don’t vote for a joke’147–8, 179
- ‘this election is not a joke’1–2, 110, 120, 133–4, 144–5, 180
- logic and negators4, 67, 81, 90–1, 157
- logical double negation (LDN)90–1
- logical presupposition103, 105
- London mayoral election campaign 20081–2, 110, 120, 133–4, 144–5, 147–8, 156–9, 177–201, 205
- lost195–6
- Lyons, J.131, 132
M
- magical thinking174–5
- manner, maxims of (Grice)98, 100–1, 126, 132, 147, 150
- Marchand, H.64n14
- markedness24, 203
- Marr, Andrew145, 201
- maxims98–102, 126–7, 128, 132, 134, 147, 150
- Mazzon, G.6
- media, thesee press, use of negation in the
- mental spaces theory7–9, 22, 37–44, 47
- metalinguistic and ordinary negation50
- metaphors32–3, 43
- in advertising169, 172–3
- grammaticalised2, 15, 53, 73, 75–9, 93–4, 122–3, 129
- interpretation of34–5
- minimisers78
- Mnuchin, Steve1
- modality76, 79–82, 92–3, 146
- Moeschler, J.121, 122n26, 124–6
- morphological negationsee affixal/morphological negators
- motivations for variability in forms of negation45–6, 82–95
‘
- ‘nature is good’ concept163
- nearly73, 74
- Negative Polarity Items (NPIs)49, 61, 68, 70–1, 75, 78, 90, 91, 94
- Nestlé Yorkie170–2, 175, 190
- newspaperssee press, use of negation in the
- Nivea advertising166
- Nixon, Richard10, 151–2
- Nolke, H.9, 112–13
- non-literary texts11–15
- non-verbal negators56–8, 59–60
- Nørgaard, N.9–11, 50
- norms
- background35–7, 43, 154–5, 158–9, 164–5, 170–2
- social12–14, 162, 164–5
- Norwich Unionsee Aviva
- not and no negationsee prototypical negators not and no
- noun phrase negators58–60, 93–4
- NPIssee Negative Polarity Items (NPIs)
O
- O’Drisoll, J.153–4
- Oktar, L.137
- oppositional structures124
- Osgood, C. E.112
- overlap between ideal and actual readers/hearers135, 136, 139–43, 151–5, 171, 172–3, 189–90
- Oxford English Dictionary (OED)52, 63n12, 65
P
- Paddick, Brian178, 182, 183–5, 186, 196–9, 200, 205
- Pagano, A.11, 109–10, 114, 116–17, 118–19, 120–1, 161
- Palacios Martinez, I. M.6–7
- paraphrase test69–71
- Parmenides5
- partial negation8
- past tense modals76, 79–82, 157–8
- pet ownership174–5
- Plato5
- ‘politics’ category of discourse182
- pollution146–7
- polyphony-based approach9–11, 112–13
- positive force156–7
- possible presence and actual absence3, 35, 128, 176, 191, 203–4
- in advertising176
- and background knowledge143
- in implicature121–2
- in mental spaces41
- and negative force15, 46, 94–5, 156–8
- in retention of negated concepts27–8, 30
- and variable force89–91
- and variable forms82, 129
- Potsma, G.78n20
- Potts, C.123n27
- praeteritio8
- pragmatic force46, 54n8, 62, 72–4, 89, 94, 155–6, 204
- pragmatic forms of negators75–81, 181, 185, 197
- pragmatic presupposition104–6, 122–3, 125–8, 133, 189
- in advertising169–70, 172–3
- and imperatives131, 150
- prefixes62–3, 93, 123n27
- The Press76
- press, use of negation in the76, 123–4, 156, 172, 188–90, 192, 193–5, 197–9
- and ideology145–6, 158–9, 177–9, 185–6, 205
- presupposition25, 103–23, 133–4, 185, 200, 203–4
- and implicatures98–103
- problem-solution structures, advertisers’ use of162–77, 204
- processing times and plausible context23–5
- productivity61, 63
- projected expectations119–21, 135, 138–51, 200
- in advertising161, 169–70, 172–3, 176
- in mayoral election campaign144–5, 147–8, 185–90, 193–5
- prototypical negators not and no18, 47–51, 53–60, 68–70, 81, 114, 129, 180, 204
Q
- quality, maxims of (Grice)98
- quantity, maxims of (Grice)98, 100, 126, 134, 147, 150
- quasi negatorssee approximate/quasi negators
- Quirk, R.64n13
R
- rarely48
- reflected expectations141, 143, 151–5
- refuse197–8
- relation, maxims of (Grice)98, 127, 134
- Relevance Theory approach (Moeschler)121, 122n26, 124–6
- religion154
- removal, affixes denoting64–6
- reported speech179
- resonance, discourse31–2
- Respect campaign132–3, 148–50
- RESTAURANT schema (Schank and Abelson)138, 141–2
- retention of negated concepts25–7, 31–2, 41, 43, 132, 204
- reversal of polarity4, 11, 35, 51–2, 55, 67, 81, 124, 127–8
- affixes denoting64–6
- Riddle-Harding, J.7–8, 9
- Rule of Accommodation (Lewis)110, 119see also accommodation, negative
- Russell, Bertrand5, 107
S
- Sanex Naturprotect150–1, 163
- scalar implicatures121–3see also gradability
- ScaPoLine9–10
- Schank, R. and Abelson, R.138
- schema theory7, 11, 135, 138–42, 186
- science, expectations of153
- scope of negation46, 50, 64, 82–9, 182
- Searle, J. R.5
- secularism154
- seldom48
- semantic negators66–74, 180–1, 182, 185, 187–9, 192, 196–7
- Shakespeare, Stephan190
- Shakespeare, William, Julius Caesar8, 87
- shared knowledge and expectationssee background knowledge
- shaving164–5
- Short, M.140
- Simpson, P.16–17, 104, 107, 110, 136–7
- Sky News Online151
- social norms
- and advertising162, 164–5
- ‘common sense’ notions12–14
- ‘society’ category of discourse182
- spoken versus written discourse88, 89–92, 98–101, 125–6, 179–82
- stasis and change35–6, 44
- stereoboard.com74
- stress, contrastive84
- strong negative force93–5
- ‘stylistic’ constraints88
- stylistics9–11, 16–17
- Supplementary Vote system178
- Sweetser, E.7–9, 39, 42–3, 44, 47, 75, 80–1, 92, 143
- Swindler, J. K.5
- syntactic negators53–60, 180–1, 192–3, 204
- analytic184–5, 187, 192, 195, 196–7, 204
- synthetic185, 187, 192, 197
- synthesis82, 87–9
- synthetic negators
- syntactic185, 187, 192, 197
- verbal and non-verbal53–4
T
- Taliban13–14, 155
- The Telegraph57, 59, 73–4, 76, 116
- terrorism145–6
- tests for negation48–9
- text world theory7, 22
- textual vehicles43, 45, 52–82, 134
- theism154
- ‘them’ and ‘us’ constructions149–51
- Thornberry, Emily145
- time factors37
- The Times129
- Toolan, M.17
- Tottie, G.
- on the Co-operative Principle99–100
- on denial28–9, 116
- on forms of negation47, 50, 67
- ‘fuzzy negators’71–4
- ‘knockout’ constraints46
- on the nature of who expects112
- on negative force94
- on spoken and written negation data88–9, 180–2
- Travers, Tony195
- Trollope, Anthony, The Warden8
‘
- ‘uncovered’ tables10
- Ungerer, F. and Schmidt, H.37
- uninformativeness, sub-maxim of negative (Leech)99–102
- urbandictionary.com63n12
- ‘us’ and ‘them’ constructions149–51
- utterance scope of variation86–7
V
- Van Leewen, T.12
- Vander Linden, K. and Di Eugenio, B.131, 132
- variable force15, 46, 72–4, 82, 89–95, 128–9, 155–8, 204
- variable forms15, 82, 128–9, 204
- and ideology155–9
- motivations for45–7
- verbal and non-verbal synthetic negators53–4
- Verhagen, A.28, 29–30, 39–41, 43, 105, 127
- Vestergaard, T. and Schrøder, K.161, 162–3
- viewpoints, in linguistic polyphony9–10, 112–13
W
- Warren Foundation132–3, 148–50
- Wason, P. C.25
- weak negative force92–3
- Wernick, A.162, 163
- Werth, P.7, 119–20
- Woman and Home magazine146–7, 152
- Wonga.com173
Y
- Yamanashi, M.75, 77
- Yorkie170–2, 175, 190
- young people132–3, 148–50
Z
- Zantac166
- Zimmer, K.64n14, 123n27
