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Article published In: Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism
Vol. 3:4 (2013) ► pp.478–508

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What’s so incomplete about incomplete acquisition?

A prolegomenon to modeling heritage language grammars

 | Penn State University
 | Rutgers University
Published online: 11 October 2013
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.3.4.04put
Modeling the competence grammar of heritage speakers who exhibit low proficiency in their L1 represents a significant challenge for generative and experimental approaches to bilingual linguistic research. In this paper we revisit the core tenets of the incomplete acquisition hypothesis as developed in recent scholarship (in particular by Montrul, S. (2002). Incomplete acquisition and attrition of Spanish tense/aspect distinctions in adult bilinguals. Bilingualism Language and Cognition, 51, 39–68. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar et seq.) and Polinsky, M. (1997). American Russian: Language loss meets language acquisition. In W. Browne et al. (Eds.), Annual Workshop on Formal Approaches to Slavic Linguistics: The Cornell Meeting (1995) (pp. 370–406). Ann Arbor, MI: Michigan Slavic Publishers.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar, . (2006). Incomplete acquisition: American Russian. Journal of Slavic Linguistics, 141, 191–262.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar)). Although we adopt many of these fundamental aspects of this research program, in this article we develop an alternative model that provides a more accurate depiction of the process that leads to what these scholars describe as the (later) effects of incomplete acquisition, thus improving the predictive power of this research program.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.What’s incomplete about incomplete acquisition?
    • 2.1Measuring “insufficient input”
    • 2.2A process or a result?
    • 2.3Intermezzo — Shifting the focus from result to process
  • 3.Our model
  • 4.Evidence for our model
    • 4.1Dissociation between functional and lexical features in second language acquisition
    • 4.2Dissociation between functional and lexical features in heritage grammars
  • 5.Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
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2023. Structured variation, language experience, and crosslinguistic influence shape child heritage speakers’ Spanish direct objects. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 26:2 ► pp. 317 ff. DOI logo
Solano-Escobar, Laura & Alejandro Cuza
2023. Infinitive vs. Gerund Use and Interpretation in Heritage Spanish. Languages 8:3 ► pp. 214 ff. DOI logo
Thane, Patrick D.
2023. Frequency matters in second language acquisition too! Frequency effects in the production of preterit morphology with state verbs in Spanish second language learners and heritage speakers. Lingua 295 ► pp. 103611 ff. DOI logo
Thane, Patrick D.
2024. On the Acquisition of Differential Object Marking in Child Heritage Spanish: Bilingual Education, Exposure, and Age Effects (In Memory of Phoebe Search). Languages 9:1 ► pp. 26 ff. DOI logo
Thane, Patrick D.
2024. Frequency effects and aspect morphology with state verbs in heritage Spanish. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 14:5 ► pp. 640 ff. DOI logo
Thane, Patrick D.
2025. Acquiring differential object marking in heritage Spanish: Late childhood to adulthood. International Journal of Bilingualism 29:3 ► pp. 583 ff. DOI logo
Thane, Patrick D.
2025. School, age, and exposure effects in the child heritage language acquisition of the Spanish volitional subjunctive. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 15:6 ► pp. 745 ff. DOI logo
Uygun, Serkan
2023. Vulnerability in processing definiteness: The case of heritage Turkish. Frontiers in Psychology 14 DOI logo
van Baal, Yvonne
2023. Definiteness marking in American Norwegian: a unique pattern among the Scandinavian languages. The Journal of Comparative Germanic Linguistics 27:1 DOI logo
Westergaard, Marit, Terje Lohndal & Björn Lundquist
2023. Variable V2 in Norwegian heritage language. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 13:2 ► pp. 133 ff. DOI logo
Wheeler, Jamelyn, Matthew Pollock & Manuel Díaz-Campos
2023. ¿(Está/Es) Difícil?: Variable Use of Ser and Estar by Heritage Learners of Spanish. Languages 8:4 ► pp. 271 ff. DOI logo
Özsoy, Onur & Frederic Blum
2023. Exploring individual variation in Turkish heritage speakers’ complex linguistic productions: Evidence from discourse markers. Applied Psycholinguistics 44:4 ► pp. 534 ff. DOI logo
Özsoy, Onur, Büsra Çiçek, Zeynep Özal, Natalia Gagarina & Irina A. Sekerina
2023. Turkish-German heritage speakers' predictive use of case: webcam-based vs. in-lab eye-tracking. Frontiers in Psychology 14 DOI logo
Cuza, Alejandro & Liliana Sánchez
2022. The acquisition of grammatical gender in child and adult heritage speakers of Spanish. In The Acquisition of Gender [Studies in Bilingualism, 63], ► pp. 71 ff. DOI logo
Dehé, Nicole & Tanja Kupisch
2022. Prepositional phrases and case in North American (heritage) Icelandic. Nordic Journal of Linguistics 45:3 ► pp. 254 ff. DOI logo
Eik, Ragnhild & Brita Ramsevik Riksem
2022. Compound-Internal Language Mixing in American Norwegian. Languages 7:2 ► pp. 85 ff. DOI logo
Frasson, Alberto
2022. Structural Change in Relative Clauses and the Autonomy of Heritage Grammars. Languages 7:2 ► pp. 106 ff. DOI logo
Jiao, Jian & Alejandro Cuza
2022. Early exposure and input type in the production of Spanish accusative clitics by Chinese-Spanish bilinguals. Glossa: a journal of general linguistics 7:1 DOI logo
Perez-Cortes, Silvia
2022. Lexical frequency and morphological regularity as sources of heritage speaker variability in the acquisition of mood. Second Language Research 38:1 ► pp. 149 ff. DOI logo
Perez-Cortes, Silvia
2022. ON COMPLEXITY AND DIVERGENCE IN HERITAGE LANGUAGE GRAMMARS. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 44:3 ► pp. 818 ff. DOI logo
Perez-Cortes, Silvia & David Giancaspro
2022. (In)frequently asked questions: On types of frequency and their role(s) in heritage language variability. Frontiers in Psychology 13 DOI logo
Sugimoto, Yushi & Marlyse Baptista
2022. A Late-Insertion-Based Exoskeletal Approach to the Hybrid Nature of Functional Features in Creole Languages. Languages 7:2 ► pp. 92 ff. DOI logo
Thane, Patrick, Michele Goldin, Abril Jimenez, Esther Hur, Julio Cesar Lopez Otero & Jennifer Austin
2022. Where we are and where we ought to be: The need for research-based assessments for dual language immersion learners. NABE Journal of Research and Practice 12:2 ► pp. 84 ff. DOI logo
Tosun, Sümeyra & Luna Filipović
2022. Lost in translation, apparently: Bilingual language processing of evidentiality in a Turkish–English Translation and judgment task. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 25:5 ► pp. 739 ff. DOI logo
Özsoy, Onur, Kateryna Iefremenko & Christoph Schroeder
2022. Shifting and Expanding Clause Combining Strategies in Heritage Turkish Varieties. Languages 7:3 ► pp. 242 ff. DOI logo
Bayram, Fatih, Grazia Di Pisa, Jason Rothman & Roumyana Slabakova
2021. Current Trends and Emerging Methodologies in Charting Heritage Language Grammars. In The Cambridge Handbook of Heritage Languages and Linguistics, ► pp. 545 ff. DOI logo
Bice, Kinsey & Judith F. Kroll
2021. Grammatical processing in two languages: How individual differences in language experience and cognitive abilities shape comprehension in heritage bilinguals. Journal of Neurolinguistics 58 ► pp. 100963 ff. DOI logo
Caloi, Irene & Jacopo Torregrossa
2021. Home and School Language Practices and Their Effects on Heritage Language Acquisition: A View from Heritage Italians in Germany. Languages 6:1 ► pp. 50 ff. DOI logo
Cuza, Alejandro, Nancy Reyes & Eduardo Lustres
2021. Copulas ser and estar production in child and adult heritage speakers of Spanish. Lingua 249 ► pp. 102978 ff. DOI logo
Giancaspro, David & Liliana Sánchez
2021. <i>Me, mi, my</i>: Innovation and variability in heritage speakers’ knowledge of inalienable possession. Glossa: a journal of general linguistics 6:1 DOI logo
Goldin, Michele, Kristen Syrett & Liliana Sanchez
2021. Perspective-Taking With Deictic Motion Verbs in Spanish: What We Learn About Semantics and the Lexicon From Heritage Child Speakers and Adults. Frontiers in Psychology 12 DOI logo
Gondra, Ager
2021. Null Direct Object Clitics in Basque Spanish: A Study Across Four Generations. Studies in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics 14:2 ► pp. 349 ff. DOI logo
Gupton, Timothy
2021. Gabriel Rei-Doval and Fernando Tejedo-Herrero: Lusophone, Galician, and Hispanic linguistics. Bridging frames and traditions. Studies in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics 14:2 ► pp. 497 ff. DOI logo
Hurtado, Irati & Silvina Montrul
2021. PRIMING DATIVE CLITICS IN SPOKEN SPANISH AS A SECOND AND HERITAGE LANGUAGE. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 43:4 ► pp. 729 ff. DOI logo
Kirova, Alena & José Camacho
2021. Failed gender agreement in L1 English L2 Spanish: Syntactic or lexical problem?. Glossa: a journal of general linguistics 6:1 DOI logo
Laleko, Oksana
2021. Discourse and Information Structure in Heritage Languages. In The Cambridge Handbook of Heritage Languages and Linguistics, ► pp. 691 ff. DOI logo
Laleko, Oksana
2023. 5. The Roadmap of Heritage Language Research in North America. Publication of the American Dialect Society 108:1 ► pp. 95 ff. DOI logo
Lohndal, Terje
2021. Syntax of Heritage Languages. In The Cambridge Handbook of Heritage Languages and Linguistics, ► pp. 644 ff. DOI logo
Lynch, Andrew & Netta Avineri
2021. Sociolinguistic Approaches to Heritage Languages. In The Cambridge Handbook of Heritage Languages and Linguistics, ► pp. 423 ff. DOI logo
Meir, Natalia & Bibi Janssen
2021. Child Heritage Language Development: An Interplay Between Cross-Linguistic Influence and Language-External Factors. Frontiers in Psychology 12 DOI logo
Meir, Natalia & Maria Polinsky
2021. Restructuring in heritage grammars. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 11:2 ► pp. 222 ff. DOI logo
Miller, David, Cecilia Solis-Barroso & Rodrigo Delgado
2021. The foreign language effect in bilingualism: Examining prosocial sentiment after offense taking. Applied Psycholinguistics 42:2 ► pp. 395 ff. DOI logo
Natvig, David
2021. Modeling Heritage Language Phonetics and Phonology: Toward an Integrated Multilingual Sound System. Languages 6:4 ► pp. 209 ff. DOI logo
Perpiñán, Silvia & Adriana Soto-Corominas
2021. Indirectstructural crosslinguistic influence in early Catalan–Spanish bilinguals in adulthood: Predicate selection in Catalan existential constructions. Applied Psycholinguistics 42:6 ► pp. 1463 ff. DOI logo
Petersen, Jan Heegård, Gert Foget Hansen, Jacob Thøgersen & Karoline Kühl
2021. Linguistic Proficiency: A Quantitative Approach to Immigrant and Heritage Speakers of Danish . Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory 17:2 ► pp. 465 ff. DOI logo
Prada Pérez, Ana de, Inmaculada Gómez Soler & Nick Feroce
2021. Variable Future-Time Expression in Spanish: A Comparison between Heritage and Second Language Learners. Languages 6:4 ► pp. 206 ff. DOI logo
Putnam, Michael T. & Andrew D. Hoffman
2021. Overextension in Gottscheerisch (negative) imperatives: proclisis at the edge of the first phase. The Journal of Comparative Germanic Linguistics 24:2 ► pp. 185 ff. DOI logo
Putnam, Michael T., Lara Schwarz & Andrew D. Hoffman
2021. Morphology of Heritage Languages. In The Cambridge Handbook of Heritage Languages and Linguistics, ► pp. 613 ff. DOI logo
Repiso-Puigdelliura, Gemma
2021. Empty onset repairs in the semi-spontaneous speech of Spanish child and adult heritage speakers. International Journal of Bilingualism 25:5 ► pp. 1311 ff. DOI logo
Repiso-Puigdelliura, Gemma & Ji Young Kim
2021. The missing link in Spanish heritage trill production. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 24:3 ► pp. 454 ff. DOI logo
Rodríguez-Ordóñez, Itxaso & Lorena Sainzmaza-Lecanda
2021. Contact Linguistics and Heritage Languages. In The Cambridge Handbook of Heritage Languages and Linguistics, ► pp. 471 ff. DOI logo
Soto-Corominas, Adriana
2021. Acquisition of quantified partitivity in Catalan-Spanish bilingualism. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 11:6 ► pp. 873 ff. DOI logo
Syrett, Kristen, Jennifer Austin & Liliana Sanchez
2021. Establishing upper bounds in English monolingual and Heritage Spanish-English bilingual language development. Language Acquisition 28:1 ► pp. 39 ff. DOI logo
Anderssen, Merete & Marit Westergaard
2020. Word order variation in heritage languages. In Lost in transmission [Studies in Bilingualism, 59], ► pp. 99 ff. DOI logo
Arslan, Seçkin & Roelien Bastiaanse
2020. First language exposure predicts attrition patterns in Turkish heritage speakers’ use of grammatical evidentiality. In Studies in Turkish as a heritage language [Studies in Bilingualism, 60], ► pp. 105 ff. DOI logo
Bayram, Fatih
2020. Turkish as a heritage language. In Studies in Turkish as a heritage language [Studies in Bilingualism, 60], ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Bousquette, Joshua & Michael T. Putnam
2020. Redefining Language Death: Evidence From Moribund Grammars. Language Learning 70:S1 ► pp. 188 ff. DOI logo
Diaubalick, Tim, Pedro Guijarro-Fuentes & Katrin Schmitz
2020. Tense and Aspect in Spanish Heritage Speakers Living in Germany. In New Trends in Language Acquisition Within the Generative Perspective [Studies in Theoretical Psycholinguistics, 49], ► pp. 49 ff. DOI logo
Fernández-Dobao, Ana & Julia Herschensohn
2020. Present tense verb morphology of Spanish HL and L2 children in dual immersion. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 10:6 ► pp. 775 ff. DOI logo
Genevska-Hanke, Dobrinka
2020. Some notes on the nature of L1-attrition and its modeling. Second Language Research 36:2 ► pp. 207 ff. DOI logo
Goldin, Michele
2020. An Exploratory Study of the Effect of Spanish Immersion Education on the Acquisition of Pronominal Subjects in Child Heritage Speakers. Languages 5:2 ► pp. 18 ff. DOI logo
Goldin, Michele
2022. Language activation in dual language schools: the development of subject-verb agreement in the English and Spanish of heritage speaker children. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 25:8 ► pp. 3046 ff. DOI logo
Gonzalez, Becky Halloran
2020. The Syntactic Distribution of Object Experiencer Psych Verbs in Heritage Spanish. Languages 5:4 ► pp. 63 ff. DOI logo
Gürel, Ayşe
2020. Is there a paradox in adult L1 grammatical attrition?. Second Language Research 36:2 ► pp. 171 ff. DOI logo
Hicks, Glyn & Laura Domínguez
2020. A model for L1 grammatical attrition. Second Language Research 36:2 ► pp. 143 ff. DOI logo
Hur, Esther
2020. Verbal lexical frequency and DOM in heritage speakers of Spanish. In The Acquisition of Differential Object Marking [Trends in Language Acquisition Research, 26], ► pp. 207 ff. DOI logo
Hur, Esther
2020. Chapter 8. Verbal lexical frequency and DOM in heritage speakers of Spanish. In The Acquisition of Differential Object Marking [Trends in Language Acquisition Research, 26], ► pp. 207 ff. DOI logo
Hur, Esther
2025. Examining verb-specific lexical effects in heritage Spanish Differential Object Marking. International Journal of Bilingualism DOI logo
Hur, Esther, Julio Cesar Lopez Otero & Liliana Sanchez
2020. Gender Agreement and Assignment in Spanish Heritage Speakers: Does Frequency Matter?. Languages 5:4 ► pp. 48 ff. DOI logo
Jiao, Jian, Alejandro Cuza & Julio López Otero
2020. The acquisition of personal a among Chinese-speaking L2 learners of Spanish. In Current Theoretical and Applied Perspectives on Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics [Issues in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics, 27], ► pp. 233 ff. DOI logo
Johannessen, Janne Bondi & Michael T. Putnam
2020. Heritage Germanic Languages in North America. In The Cambridge Handbook of Germanic Linguistics, ► pp. 783 ff. DOI logo
Karayayla, Tuğba
2020. Effects of first language attrition on heritage language input and ultimate attainment. In Lost in transmission [Studies in Bilingualism, 59], ► pp. 33 ff. DOI logo
Kinn, Kari
2020. Stability and attrition in American Norwegian nominals: a view from predicate nouns. The Journal of Comparative Germanic Linguistics 23:1 ► pp. 3 ff. DOI logo
Kisselev, Olesya, Irina Dubinina & Maria Polinsky
2020. Form-Focused Instruction in the Heritage Language Classroom: Toward Research-Informed Heritage Language Pedagogy. Frontiers in Education 5 DOI logo
Lloyd-Smith, Anika, Fatih Bayram & Mike Iverson
2020. The effects of heritage language experience on lexical and morphosyntactic outcomes. In Studies in Turkish as a heritage language [Studies in Bilingualism, 60], ► pp. 63 ff. DOI logo
López Otero, Julio César
2020. On the acceptability of the Spanish DOM among Romanian-Spanish bilinguals. In The Acquisition of Differential Object Marking [Trends in Language Acquisition Research, 26], ► pp. 161 ff. DOI logo
López Otero, Julio César
2020. Chapter 6. On the acceptability of the Spanish DOM among Romanian-Spanish bilinguals. In The Acquisition of Differential Object Marking [Trends in Language Acquisition Research, 26], ► pp. 161 ff. DOI logo
López Otero, Julio César
2022. Bidirectional cross-linguistic influence on DOM in Romanian-Spanish bilinguals. International Journal of Bilingualism 26:6 ► pp. 710 ff. DOI logo
López Otero, Julio César
2022. Lexical Frequency Effects on the Acquisition of Syntactic Properties in Heritage Spanish: A Study on Unaccusative and Unergative Predicates. Heritage Language Journal 19:1 ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
López Otero, Julio César
2023. Imperatives in Heritage Spanish: Lexical Access and Lexical Frequency Effects. Languages 8:3 ► pp. 218 ff. DOI logo
López Otero, Julio César & Alejandro Cuza
2020. The distribution and use of present and past progressive forms in Spanish-English and Spanish-Brazilian Portuguese bilinguals. In Hispanic Contact Linguistics [Issues in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics, 22], ► pp. 215 ff. DOI logo
López-Beltrán, Priscila & Matthew T. Carlson
2020. How usage-based approaches to language can contribute to a unified theory of heritage grammars. Linguistics Vanguard 6:1 DOI logo
Mardale, Alexandru & Silvina Montrul
2020. Introduction. In The Acquisition of Differential Object Marking [Trends in Language Acquisition Research, 26], ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Mardale, Alexandru & Silvina Montrul
2020. Introduction. In The Acquisition of Differential Object Marking [Trends in Language Acquisition Research, 26], ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Miller, Lauren
2020. When bilinguals outperform monolinguals. Revista Española de Lingüística Aplicada/Spanish Journal of Applied Linguistics 33:2 ► pp. 475 ff. DOI logo
Montanari, Elke G., Roman Abel, Lilia Tschudinovski & Barbara Graßer
2020. How do parental input and socio-economic status account for differences within and between the cohorts?. In Lost in transmission [Studies in Bilingualism, 59], ► pp. 151 ff. DOI logo
Montrul, Silvina & Nicoleta Bateman
2020. Vulnerability and stability of Differential Object Marking in Romanian heritage speakers. Glossa: a journal of general linguistics 5:1 DOI logo
Pascual y Cabo, Diego & Gema Vela
2020. Futurity and probability in Spanish as a heritage language. In Hispanic Linguistics [Issues in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics, 26], ► pp. 285 ff. DOI logo
Perpiñán, Sílvia
2020. What can the ‘attrition via acquisition’ model predict?. Second Language Research 36:2 ► pp. 167 ff. DOI logo
Putnam, Michael T
2020. Lexicalizing exponents in multilingual grammars. Second Language Research 36:2 ► pp. 187 ff. DOI logo
Putnam, Michael T.
2019. THE (IN)STABILITY OF GRAMMARS. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 41:2 ► pp. 275 ff. DOI logo
Putnam, Michael T.
2020. One Feature—One Head: Features as Functional Heads in Language Acquisition and Attrition. In New Trends in Language Acquisition Within the Generative Perspective [Studies in Theoretical Psycholinguistics, 49], ► pp. 3 ff. DOI logo
Romano, Francesco Bryan
2020. Ultimate attainment in heritage language speakers: Syntactic and morphological knowledge of Italian accusative clitics. Applied Psycholinguistics 41:2 ► pp. 347 ff. DOI logo
Schmid, Monika S. & Tuğba Karayayla
2020. The Roles of Age, Attitude, and Use in First Language Development and Attrition of Turkish–English Bilinguals. Language Learning 70:S1 ► pp. 54 ff. DOI logo
Stringer, David
2020. Not all acquisition entails attrition: The persistence of syntax in the teeth of lexical breakdown. Second Language Research 36:2 ► pp. 225 ff. DOI logo
Łyskawa, Paulina & Naomi Nagy
2020. Case Marking Variation in Heritage Slavic Languages in Toronto: Not So Different. Language Learning 70:S1 ► pp. 122 ff. DOI logo
Bayram, Fatih, Tanja Kupisch, Diego Pascual y Cabo & Jason Rothman
2019. TERMINOLOGY MATTERS ON THEORETICAL GROUNDS TOO!. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 41:2 ► pp. 257 ff. DOI logo
Bayram, Fatih, Jason Rothman, Michael Iverson, Tanja Kupisch, David Miller, Eloi Puig-Mayenco & Marit Westergaard
2019. Differences in use without deficiencies in competence: passives in the Turkish and German of Turkish heritage speakers in Germany. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 22:8 ► pp. 919 ff. DOI logo
Cuza, Alejandro, Lauren Miller, Rocio Pérez Tattam & Mariluz Ortiz Vergara
2019. Structure complexity effects in child heritage Spanish: The case of the Spanish personal a. International Journal of Bilingualism 23:6 ► pp. 1333 ff. DOI logo
Domínguez, Laura, Glyn Hicks & Roumyana Slabakova
2019. TERMINOLOGY CHOICE IN GENERATIVE ACQUISITION RESEARCH. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 41:2 ► pp. 241 ff. DOI logo
Giancaspro, David
2019. The Late(r) Bird Gets the Verb? Effects of Age of Acquisition of English on Adult Heritage Speakers’ Knowledge of Subjunctive Mood in Spanish. Languages 4:3 ► pp. 69 ff. DOI logo
Giancaspro, David
2020. Not in the mood. In Lost in transmission [Studies in Bilingualism, 59], ► pp. 71 ff. DOI logo
Hopp, Holger, Michael T. Putnam & Nora Vosburg
2019. Derivational complexity vs. transfer effects. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 9:3 ► pp. 341 ff. DOI logo
Jacob, Gunnar, Duygu Fatma Şafak, Orhan Demir & Bilal Kırkıcı
2019. Preserved morphological processing in heritage speakers: A masked priming study on Turkish. Second Language Research 35:2 ► pp. 173 ff. DOI logo
Khamis-Dakwar, Reem, May Ahmar & Karen Froud
2019. Palestinian Arabic dual formation in typically developing heritage speakers of Palestinian Arabic. In Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics XXXI [Studies in Arabic Linguistics, 8], ► pp. 207 ff. DOI logo
Lohndal, Terje, Jason Rothman, Tanja Kupisch & Marit Westergaard
2019. Heritage language acquisition: What it reveals and why it is important for formal linguistic theories. Language and Linguistics Compass 13:12 DOI logo
Mai, Ziyin & Xiangjun Deng
2019. Selective vulnerability and dominant language transfer in the acquisition of the Chinese cleft construction by heritage speakers. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 9:2 ► pp. 202 ff. DOI logo
Montrul, Silvina, Archna Bhatia, Rakesh Bhatt & Vandana Puri
2019. Case Marking in Hindi as the Weaker Language. Frontiers in Psychology 10 DOI logo
Perez-Cortes, Silvia, Michael T. Putnam & Liliana Sánchez
2019. Differential Access: Asymmetries in Accessing Features and Building Representations in Heritage Language Grammars. Languages 4:4 ► pp. 81 ff. DOI logo
Pérez-Tattam, Rocío, Maria José Ezeizabarrena, Hans Stadthagen-González & Virginia C. Mueller Gathercole
2019. Gender Assignment to Spanish Pseudowords by Monolingual and Basque-Spanish Bilingual Children. Languages 4:3 ► pp. 58 ff. DOI logo
Rothman, Jason, Jorge González Alonso & Eloi Puig-Mayenco
2019. Third Language Acquisition and Linguistic Transfer, DOI logo
Sagarra, Nuria, Liliana Sánchez & Aurora Bel
2019. Processing DOM in relative clauses. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 9:1 ► pp. 120 ff. DOI logo
Sanchez, Liliana
2019. Bilingual Alignments. Languages 4:4 ► pp. 82 ff. DOI logo
Sánchez, Liliana
2015. Crosslinguistic influences in the mapping of functional features in Quechua-Spanish Bilingualism. In The Acquisition of Spanish in Understudied Language Pairings [Issues in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics, 3], ► pp. 21 ff. DOI logo
Sánchez, Liliana
2017. The dynamic nature of bilingualism. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 7:6 ► pp. 754 ff. DOI logo
Schmitz, Katrin & Anna-Lena Scherger
2019. Effects of age and education on variable but native heritage grammars: Theoretical and empirical implications for the Null Subject Parameter. Applied Linguistics Review 10:4 ► pp. 443 ff. DOI logo
Shin, Naomi, Barbara Rodríguez, Aja Armijo & Molly Perara-Lunde
2019. Child heritage speakers’ production and comprehension of direct object clitic gender in Spanish. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 9:4-5 ► pp. 659 ff. DOI logo
Shin, Naomi, Barbara Rodríguez, Aja Armijo & Molly Perara-Lunde
2021. Child heritage speakers’ production and comprehension of direct object clitic gender in Spanish. In Psycholinguistic Approaches to Production and Comprehension in Bilingual Adults and Children [Benjamins Current Topics, 117], ► pp. 159 ff. DOI logo
Torres, Julio, Ricardo Estremera & Sherez Mohamed
2019. THE CONTRIBUTION OF PSYCHOSOCIAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL VARIABLES TO HERITAGE LANGUAGE LEARNERS’ LINGUISTIC KNOWLEDGE OF SPANISH. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 41:04 ► pp. 695 ff. DOI logo
Aalberse, Suzanne & Aafke Hulk
2018. Introduction to the special issue – Heritage language studies and early child bilingualism research: Understanding the connection. International Journal of Bilingualism 22:5 ► pp. 491 ff. DOI logo
ANDERSSEN, MERETE, BJÖRN LUNDQUIST & MARIT WESTERGAARD
2018. Cross-linguistic similarities and differences in bilingual acquisition and attrition: Possessives and double definiteness in Norwegian heritage language. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 21:4 ► pp. 748 ff. DOI logo
Bullock, Barbara E., Jacqueline Serigos, Almeida Jacqueline Toribio & Arthur Wendorf
2018. The challenges and benefits of annotating oral bilingual corpora. Linguistic Variation 18:1 ► pp. 100 ff. DOI logo
Gómez Soler, Inmaculada & Diego Pascual y Cabo
2018. On focus and weight in Spanish as a heritage language. Revista Española de Lingüística Aplicada/Spanish Journal of Applied Linguistics 31:2 ► pp. 437 ff. DOI logo
KUPISCH, TANJA
2018. INTRODUCTION: Recent developments in early bilingualism. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 21:4 ► pp. 653 ff. DOI logo
Kupisch, Tanja & Jason Rothman
2018. Terminology matters! Why difference is not incompleteness and how early child bilinguals are heritage speakers. International Journal of Bilingualism 22:5 ► pp. 564 ff. DOI logo
Leal, Tania, Emilie Destruel & Bradley Hoot
2018. The realization of information focus in monolingual and bilingual native Spanish. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 8:2 ► pp. 217 ff. DOI logo
Lipski, John M
2018. Can agreement be suppressed in second-language acquisition? Data from the Palenquero–Spanish interface. Second Language Research 34:3 ► pp. 309 ff. DOI logo
Puig-Mayenco, Eloi, Ian Cunnings, Fatih Bayram, David Miller, Susagna Tubau & Jason Rothman
2018. Language Dominance Affects Bilingual Performance and Processing Outcomes in Adulthood. Frontiers in Psychology 9 DOI logo
Putnam, Michael T., Tanja Kupisch & Diego Pascual y Cabo
2018. Different situations, similar outcomes. In Bilingual Cognition and Language [Studies in Bilingualism, 54], ► pp. 251 ff. DOI logo
Silva-Corvalán, Carmen
2018. Bilingual acquisition. In Questioning theoretical primitives in linguistic inquiry [Studies in Functional and Structural Linguistics, 76], ► pp. 245 ff. DOI logo
Silva-Corvalán, Carmen
2018. Simultaneous bilingualism: Early developments, incomplete later outcomes?. International Journal of Bilingualism 22:5 ► pp. 497 ff. DOI logo
Singer, Ruth
2018. A small speech community with many small languages: The role of receptive multilingualism in supporting linguistic diversity at Warruwi Community (Australia). Language & Communication 62 ► pp. 102 ff. DOI logo
Bardovi-Harlig, Kathleen & David Stringer
2017. Beyond steady-state models of ultimate attainment. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 7:6 ► pp. 673 ff. DOI logo
Bylund, Emanuel
2017. Interpreting age effects in language acquisition and attrition. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 7:6 ► pp. 682 ff. DOI logo
Domínguez, Laura
2017. Bridging the gap between selective and non-selective L1 attrition. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 7:6 ► pp. 686 ff. DOI logo
Hoot, Bradley
2017. Narrow presentational focus in heritage Spanish and the syntax‒discourse interface. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 7:1 ► pp. 63 ff. DOI logo
Hoot, Bradley
2019. Focus in heritage Hungarian. Language Acquisition 26:1 ► pp. 46 ff. DOI logo
Kupisch, Tanja, Alyona Belikova, Öner Özçelik, Ilse Stangen & Lydia White
2017. Restrictions on definiteness in the grammars of German-Turkish heritage speakers. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 7:1 ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
MacWhinney, Brian
2017. Are these approaches incompatible?. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 7:6 ► pp. 730 ff. DOI logo
Meir, Natalia, Joel Walters & Sharon Armon-Lotem
2017. Bi-directional cross-linguistic influence in bilingual Russian-Hebrew children. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 7:5 ► pp. 514 ff. DOI logo
Meisel, Jürgen M.
2017. Bilingual Acquisition. In The Handbook of Psycholinguistics, ► pp. 635 ff. DOI logo
Putnam, Michael
2017. Feature reassembly as constraint satisfaction. The Linguistic Review 34:3 DOI logo
Riksem, Brita
2017. Language Mixing and Diachronic Change: American Norwegian Noun Phrases Then and Now. Languages 2:2 ► pp. 3 ff. DOI logo
Schmid, Monika S. & Barbara Köpke
2017. The relevance of first language attrition to theories of bilingual development. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 7:6 ► pp. 637 ff. DOI logo
Shin, Naomi L., Pablo E. Requena & Anita Kemp
2017. Bilingual and Monolingual Children’s Patterns of Syntactic Variation: Variable Clitic Placement in Spanish. In Language Development and Disorders in Spanish-speaking Children [Literacy Studies, 14], ► pp. 63 ff. DOI logo
Bayram, Fatih, Josh Prada, Diego Pascual y Cabo & Jason Rothman
2016. Why Should Formal Linguistic Approaches to Heritage Language Acquisition Be Linked to Heritage Language Pedagogies?. In Handbook of Comparative Studies on Community Colleges and Global Counterparts [Springer International Handbooks of Education, ], ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Bayram, Fatih, Josh Prada, Diego Pascual y Cabo & Jason Rothman
2018. Why Should Formal Linguistic Approaches to Heritage Language Acquisition Be Linked to Heritage Language Pedagogies?. In Handbook of Comparative Studies on Community Colleges and Global Counterparts [Springer International Handbooks of Education, ], ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Bayram, Fatih, Josh Prada, Diego Pascual y Cabo & Jason Rothman
2018. Why Should Formal Linguistic Approaches to Heritage Language Acquisition Be Linked to Heritage Language Pedagogies?. In Handbook of Research and Practice in Heritage Language Education [Springer International Handbooks of Education, ], ► pp. 187 ff. DOI logo
Castro, Tammer, Jason Rothman & Marit Westergaard
2016. Comparing anaphora resolution in early and late Brazilian Portuguese-European Portuguese bidialectal bilinguals. Revista Española de Lingüística Aplicada/Spanish Journal of Applied Linguistics 29:2 ► pp. 429 ff. DOI logo
Cuza, Alejandro
2016. The status of interrogative subject–verb inversion in Spanish-English bilingual children. Lingua 180 ► pp. 124 ff. DOI logo
Cuza, Alejandro
2025. Phrasal verb production in child heritage speakers of English residing in Mexico: Chronological age, experience, and protracted development. International Journal of Bilingualism 29:5 ► pp. 1369 ff. DOI logo
CUZA, ALEJANDRO & ROCÍO PÉREZ-TATTAM
2016. Grammatical gender selection and phrasal word order in child heritage Spanish: A feature re-assembly approach. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 19:1 ► pp. 50 ff. DOI logo
Di Venanzio, Laura, Katrin Schmitz & Anna-Lena Scherger
2016. Objects of transitive verbs in Italian as a heritage language in contact with German. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 6:3 ► pp. 227 ff. DOI logo
Domínguez, Laura & Glyn Hicks
2016. Synchronic change in a multidialectal Spanish community. In Inquiries in Hispanic Linguistics [Issues in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics, 12], ► pp. 53 ff. DOI logo
Lohndal, Terje & Marit Westergaard
2016. Grammatical Gender in American Norwegian Heritage Language: Stability or Attrition?. Frontiers in Psychology 7 DOI logo
Otheguy, Ricardo
2016. The linguistic competence of second-generation bilinguals. In Romance Linguistics 2013 [Romance Languages and Linguistic Theory, 9], ► pp. 301 ff. DOI logo
Rothman, Jason, Ianthi Maria Tsimpli & Diego Pascual y Cabo
2016. Formal linguistic approaches to heritage language acquisition. In Advances in Spanish as a Heritage Language [Studies in Bilingualism, 49], ► pp. 13 ff. DOI logo
Arnbjörnsdóttir, Birna
2015. Reexamining Icelandic as a Heritage Language in North America. In Germanic Heritage Languages in North America [Studies in Language Variation, 18], ► pp. 72 ff. DOI logo
Brown, Josh & Michael T. Putnam
2015. Functional Convergence and Extension in Contact. In Germanic Heritage Languages in North America [Studies in Language Variation, 18], ► pp. 135 ff. DOI logo
Cuza, Alejandro & Lauren Miller
2015. The protracted acquisition of past tense aspectual values in child heritage Spanish. In Hispanic Linguistics at the Crossroads [Issues in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics, 4], ► pp. 211 ff. DOI logo
Hopp, Holger & Michael T. Putnam
2015. Syntactic restructuring in heritage grammars. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 5:2 ► pp. 180 ff. DOI logo
Johannessen, Janne Bondi
2015. Attrition in an American Norwegian Heritage Language Speaker. In Germanic Heritage Languages in North America [Studies in Language Variation, 18], ► pp. 46 ff. DOI logo
Johannessen, Janne Bondi
2018. Factors of variation, maintenance and change in Scandinavian heritage languages. International Journal of Bilingualism 22:4 ► pp. 447 ff. DOI logo
Nagy, Naomi
2015. A sociolinguistic view of null subjects and VOT in Toronto heritage languages. Lingua 164 ► pp. 309 ff. DOI logo
Pascual y Cabo, Diego
2015. Issues in Spanish heritage morphosyntax. Studies in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics 8:2 ► pp. 389 ff. DOI logo
Pascual y Cabo, Diego
2016. Charting the past, present, and future of Spanish heritage language research. In Advances in Spanish as a Heritage Language [Studies in Bilingualism, 49], ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Pascual y Cabo, Diego
2020. Examining the role of cross-generational attrition in the development of Spanish as a heritage language. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 10:1 ► pp. 86 ff. DOI logo
Sherkina-Lieber, Marina
2015.  Tense, aspect, and agreement in heritage Labrador Inuttitut. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 5:1 ► pp. 30 ff. DOI logo
Ticio, M.Emma
2015. Differential object marking in Spanish-English early bilinguals. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 5:1 ► pp. 62 ff. DOI logo
Yager, Lisa, Nora Hellmold, Hyoun-A Joo, Michael T. Putnam, Eleonora Rossi, Catherine Stafford & Joseph Salmons
2015. New Structural Patterns in Moribund Grammar: Case Marking in Heritage German. Frontiers in Psychology 6 DOI logo
Leal, Tania, Jason Rothman & Roumyana Slabakova
2014. A Rare Structure at the Syntax-Discourse Interface: Heritage and Spanish-Dominant Native Speakers Weigh In. Language Acquisition 21:4 ► pp. 411 ff. DOI logo
Montrul, Silvina
2014. Structural changes in Spanish in the United States: Differential object marking in Spanish heritage speakers across generations. Lingua 151 ► pp. 177 ff. DOI logo
Montrul, Silvina
2018. Heritage language development: Connecting the dots. International Journal of Bilingualism 22:5 ► pp. 530 ff. DOI logo
Montrul, Silvina
2020. Attrition, addition, and age. Second Language Research 36:2 ► pp. 213 ff. DOI logo
Montrul, Silvina
2025. Intergenerational attrition: direct or reverse language transmission?. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition 28:3 ► pp. 832 ff. DOI logo
[no author supplied]
2019. Heritage languages [Studies in Bilingualism, 58], DOI logo
[no author supplied]
2020. Palenquero and Spanish in contact [Contact Language Library, 56], DOI logo
[no author supplied]
2021. Grammatical Aspects of Heritage Languages. In The Cambridge Handbook of Heritage Languages and Linguistics, ► pp. 579 ff. DOI logo
[no author supplied]
2021. Research Approaches to Heritage Languages. In The Cambridge Handbook of Heritage Languages and Linguistics, ► pp. 373 ff. DOI logo
[no author supplied]
2023. Introduction. In Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics XXXIV [Studies in Arabic Linguistics, 12], ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 24 november 2025. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.

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