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The acquisition of L3 Scandinavian impacts word order in advanced L2 English

Regressive cross-linguistic influence in verb-particle constructions

ORCiD logo with link | Adam Mickiewicz University
ORCiD logo with link | Adam Mickiewicz University
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Available under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) 4.0 license.

For any use beyond this license, please contact the publisher at rights@benjamins.nl.

This article was made Open Access under a CC BY 4.0 license through payment of an APC by or on behalf of the authors.

Published online: 18 August 2025
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https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.24095.ols
Abstract
This study explores how learning a Scandinavian language as an L3 affects word order in advanced L2 English, depending on the learner’s knowledge of the relevant structure in L3. We target verb-particle constructions, which cross-linguistically employ dissimilar word order patterns. In English and Norwegian, the particle can both precede and follow the object, and the preference is modulated by length of the NP. Conversely, the particle is obligatorily pre-posed in Swedish and always post-posed in Danish. We report acceptability judgement and self-paced reading data from instructed, non-immersed L1 Polish L2 English learners acquiring either L3 Norwegian (n = 65), Swedish (n = 52), or Danish (n = 46) from beginning to advanced levels, with the Norwegian group serving as a control. All learners are matched for L2 English proficiency. An analysis using linear mixed-effects models reveals regressive cross-linguistic influence in participants’ judgements and reading times in L2 English, reflected mainly in the post-posed particle being preferred by L3 Danish learners and dispreferred by L3 Swedish learners, particularly when target-like knowledge of the structure is in place. Our study is the first to show that L3 impacts word order in L2, thereby extending the observation of regressive cross-linguistic influence to syntax.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
    • 1.1Previous studies on regressive cross-linguistic influence
    • 1.2Particle placement in the languages under study
    • 1.3Acquisition and processing of verb-particle constructions by language learners
  • 2.The study
    • 2.1Research questions
    • 2.2Participants
    • 2.3Materials
    • 2.4Procedure
  • 3.Results
    • 3.1Data analysis procedures
    • 3.2Acceptability Judgement Task in L2 English
    • 3.3Self-paced Reading Task in L2 English
  • 4.Discussion
  • 5.Conclusion
  • Acknowledgements
  • Data availability statement
  • CRediT author statement
  • Notes
  • References
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