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Article published In: Epistemological issue with keynote article “Different speakers, different grammars: Individual differences in native language attainment” by Ewa Dabrowska
[Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 2:3] 2012
► pp. 219–253

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keynote-epistemological-article

Different speakers, different grammars

Individual differences in native language attainment

 | Northumbria University
Published online: 7 September 2012
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https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.2.3.01dab
This article reviews several recent studies suggesting that — contrary to a widespread belief — adult monolingual native speakers of the same language do not share the same mental grammar. The studies examined various aspects of linguistic knowledge, including inflectional morphology, passives, quantifiers, and more complex constructions with subordinate clauses. The findings suggest that, in some cases, language learners attend to different cues in the input and end up with different grammars; in others, some speakers extract only fairly specific, ‘local’ generalizations which apply to particular subclasses of items while others acquire more abstract rules which apply ‘across the board’. At least some of these differences are education-related: more educated speakers appear to acquire more general rules, possibly as a result of more varied linguistic experience. These findings have interesting consequences for research on bilingualism, particularly for research on ultimate attainment in second language acquisition, as well as important methodological implications for all language sciences.
Article outline
  • Polish genitive singular masculine inflection
  • Polish dative singular inflection
  • Four complex English constructions
  • Passives
  • Quantifiers, and passives again
  • Competence or performance?
  • Reasons for individual differences
  • Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
References (73)
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2022. Changesin the midst ofa construction network: a diachronic construction grammar approach to complex prepositions denoting internal location. Cognitive Linguistics 33:2 ► pp. 339 ff. DOI logo
Dąbrowska, Ewa, Esther Pascual & Beatriz Macías Gómez-Estern
2022. Literacy improves the comprehension of object relatives. Cognition 224 ► pp. 104958 ff. DOI logo
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2022. Cognitive Linguistics meets multilingual language acquisition: What pattern identification can tell us. Yearbook of the German Cognitive Linguistics Association 10:1 ► pp. 239 ff. DOI logo
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2022. Syntax Acquisition in Healthy Adults and Post-Stroke Individuals: The Intriguing Role of Grammatical Preference, Statistical Learning, and Education. Brain Sciences 12:5 ► pp. 616 ff. DOI logo
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2022. /r/-sandhi in the speech of Queen Elizabeth II. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 52:2 ► pp. 246 ff. DOI logo
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2022. ON COMPLEXITY AND DIVERGENCE IN HERITAGE LANGUAGE GRAMMARS. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 44:3 ► pp. 818 ff. DOI logo
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2022. A Usage-Based Approach to Pattern Finding: The Traceback Method Meets Code-Mixing. Languages 7:2 ► pp. 135 ff. DOI logo
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2022. Individual differences in word senses. Cognitive Linguistics 33:1 ► pp. 65 ff. DOI logo
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2022. Bilingualism is always cognitively advantageous, but this doesn’t mean what you think it means. Frontiers in Psychology 13 DOI logo
Vulchanova, Mila, Valentin Vulchanov, Antonella Sorace, Cristina Suarez-Gomez & Pedro Guijarro-Fuentes
2022. Editorial: The Notion of the Native Speaker Put to the Test: Recent Research Advances. Frontiers in Psychology 13 DOI logo
Bayram, Fatih, Maki Kubota, Alicia Luque, Diego Pascual y Cabo & Jason Rothman
2021. You Can’t Fix What Is Not Broken: Contextualizing the Imbalance of Perceptions About Heritage Language Bilingualism. Frontiers in Education 6 DOI logo
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2021. Brain potentials reveal differential processing of masculine and feminine grammatical gender in native Spanish speakers. Psychophysiology 58:3 DOI logo
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2021. Analyzing variability in L2 ultimate attainment. Language, Interaction and Acquisition 12:1 ► pp. 133 ff. DOI logo
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2021. German Language Adaptation of the NAVS (NAVS-G) and of the NAT (NAT-G): Testing Grammar in Aphasia. Brain Sciences 11:4 ► pp. 474 ff. DOI logo
Favier, Saoradh & Falk Huettig
2021. Long-term written language experience affects grammaticality judgements and usage but not priming of spoken sentences. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 74:8 ► pp. 1378 ff. DOI logo
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2021. Are there core and peripheral syntactic structures? Experimental evidence from Dutch native speakers with varying literacy levels. Lingua 251 ► pp. 102991 ff. DOI logo
Fischer, Kerstin & Morgan Aarestrup
2021. Relationships between construction grammar(s) and genre: Evidence from an analysis of Instagram posts. Journal of Pragmatics 183 ► pp. 87 ff. DOI logo
Gudmestad, Aarnes, Amanda Edmonds & Thomas Metzger
2021. Moving Beyond the Native-Speaker Bias in the Analysis of Variable Gender Marking. Frontiers in Communication 6 DOI logo
Hartmann, Stefan & Michael Pleyer
2021. Constructing a protolanguage: reconstructing prehistoric languages in a usage-based construction grammar framework. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 376:1824 DOI logo
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2021. The (limited) contributions of proficiency assessments in defining advancedness. In Advancedness in Second Language Spanish [Issues in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics, 31], ► pp. 17 ff. DOI logo
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2021. Consistency in Motion Event Encoding Across Languages. Frontiers in Psychology 12 DOI logo
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2021. Entrenchment effects in code-mixing: individual differences in German-English bilingual children. Cognitive Linguistics 32:2 ► pp. 319 ff. DOI logo
Shadrova, Anna, Pia Linscheid, Julia Lukassek, Anke Lüdeling & Sarah Schneider
2021. A Challenge for Contrastive L1/L2 Corpus Studies: Large Inter- and Intra-Individual Variation Across Morphological, but Not Global Syntactic Categories in Task-Based Corpus Data of a Homogeneous L1 German Group. Frontiers in Psychology 12 DOI logo
Singleton, David & Justyna Leśniewska
2021. The Critical Period Hypothesis for L2 Acquisition: An Unfalsifiable Embarrassment?. Languages 6:3 ► pp. 149 ff. DOI logo
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2021. Of absent mothers, strong sisters and peculiar daughters: The constructional network of English NPN constructions. Cognitive Linguistics 32:1 ► pp. 97 ff. DOI logo
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2021. Krashen's claims through a usage‐based lens. Foreign Language Annals 54:2 ► pp. 306 ff. DOI logo
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2020. From grammatical categories to processes of categorization. In Current perspectives on child language acquisition [Trends in Language Acquisition Research, 27], ► pp. 91 ff. DOI logo
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2020. Semantic differences between strong and weak verb forms in Dutch. Cognitive Linguistics 31:3 ► pp. 393 ff. DOI logo
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2020. Individuality in syntactic variation: An investigation of the seventeenth-century gerund alternation. Cognitive Linguistics 31:2 ► pp. 279 ff. DOI logo
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2020. The Effect of Silence and Distance: Evidence from Recomplementation in US Heritage Spanish. Languages 5:4 ► pp. 66 ff. DOI logo
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2020. Variation Within Idiomatic Variation: Exploring the Differences Between Speakers and Idioms. East European Journal of Psycholinguistics 7:2 DOI logo
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2020. Current Perspectives on Aging and Bilingualism across the Life Span. In The Cambridge Handbook of Cognitive Aging, ► pp. 480 ff. DOI logo
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2020. Individual Differences in First Language Acquisition. Annual Review of Linguistics 6:1 ► pp. 319 ff. DOI logo
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2020. Investigating the effects of L1 proficiency and CLI. In Studies in Turkish as a heritage language [Studies in Bilingualism, 60], ► pp. 127 ff. DOI logo
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2020. The effects of heritage language experience on lexical and morphosyntactic outcomes. In Studies in Turkish as a heritage language [Studies in Bilingualism, 60], ► pp. 63 ff. DOI logo
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2020. The Relationship Between First and Second Language Writing: Investigating the Effects of First Language Complexity on Second Language Complexity in Advanced Stages of Learning. Language Learning 70:3 ► pp. 732 ff. DOI logo
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2020. Child, family, and school factors in bilingual preschoolers’ vocabulary development in heritage languages. Journal of Child Language 47:4 ► pp. 817 ff. DOI logo
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2020. Cognitive Discourse Analysis, DOI logo
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2020. When labeling L2 users as nativelike or not, consider classification errors. Second Language Research 36:4 ► pp. 709 ff. DOI logo
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2020. ELF and Language Change at the Individual Level. In Language Change, ► pp. 205 ff. DOI logo
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2019. Writing: the re-construction of language. Language Sciences 72 ► pp. 134 ff. DOI logo
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2019. Brain Adaptations and Neurological Indices of Processing in Adult Second Language Acquisition. In The Handbook of the Neuroscience of Multilingualism, ► pp. 170 ff. DOI logo
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2019. L2-constructions that go together – more on valency constructions and learner language. Yearbook of the German Cognitive Linguistics Association 7:1 ► pp. 9 ff. DOI logo
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2019. Testing cognitive gadgets. Mind & Language 34:4 ► pp. 551 ff. DOI logo
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2019. Quantitative perspectives in Cognitive Linguistics. Review of Cognitive Linguistics 17:1 ► pp. 7 ff. DOI logo
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2019. Construal vs. redundancy: Russian aspect in context. Cognitive Linguistics 30:3 ► pp. 467 ff. DOI logo
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2019. Mixing things up: How blocking and mixing affect the processing of codemixed sentences. International Journal of Bilingualism 23:2 ► pp. 584 ff. DOI logo
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2019. Norms of correctness and rationality in research on code-switching. In Normativity in language and linguistics [Studies in Language Companion Series, 209], ► pp. 235 ff. DOI logo
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2019. Intuition and beyond. In Normativity in language and linguistics [Studies in Language Companion Series, 209], ► pp. 213 ff. DOI logo
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2019. Phraseology and the Advanced Language Learner, DOI logo
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2018. Introduction to the special issue – Heritage language studies and early child bilingualism research: Understanding the connection. International Journal of Bilingualism 22:5 ► pp. 491 ff. DOI logo
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2018. Comparison as a fruitful way forward. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism ► pp. 668 ff. DOI logo
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2018. Bidirectional cross-linguistic influence in late bilingualism. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 8:4 ► pp. 411 ff. DOI logo
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2018. Finding variants for construction-based dialectometry: A corpus-based approach to regional CxGs. Cognitive Linguistics 29:2 ► pp. 275 ff. DOI logo
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2018. Creativity and Construction Grammar: Cognitive and Psychological Issues. Zeitschrift für Anglistik und Amerikanistik 66:3 ► pp. 259 ff. DOI logo
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2022. Constructionist approaches to creativity. Yearbook of the German Cognitive Linguistics Association 10:1 ► pp. 259 ff. DOI logo
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2018. Goldilocks Forgetting in Cross-Situational Learning. Frontiers in Psychology 9 DOI logo
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2018. Learning Morphological Constructions. In The Construction of Words [Studies in Morphology, 4], ► pp. 547 ff. DOI logo
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2018. Terminology matters! Why difference is not incompleteness and how early child bilinguals are heritage speakers. International Journal of Bilingualism 22:5 ► pp. 564 ff. DOI logo
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2018. The impact of linguistic complexity on the solution of mathematical modelling tasks. ZDM 50:1-2 ► pp. 159 ff. DOI logo
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2018. Differential effects of internal and external factors in early bilingual vocabulary learning: The case of Singapore. Applied Psycholinguistics 39:2 ► pp. 383 ff. DOI logo
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2018. Context-Sensitivity and Individual Differences in the Derivation of Scalar Implicature. Frontiers in Psychology 9 DOI logo
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2017. Investigating the lexico-grammatical resources of a non-native user of English: The case of can and could in email requests . Applied Linguistics Review 8:1 ► pp. 35 ff. DOI logo
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2017. Psychology is not primarily Empirical Science: A Comparison of Cultures in the Lexical Hypothesis Tradition as a Failure of Introspection. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science 51:2 ► pp. 285 ff. DOI logo
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2017. Gradual development of constructional complexity in German spatial language. Cognitive Linguistics 28:4 DOI logo
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2017. This is the native speaker that the non-native speaker outperformed: Individual, education-related differences in the processing and interpretation of Object Relative Clauses by native and non-native speakers of English. Language Sciences 59 ► pp. 192 ff. DOI logo
Street, James A.
2020. More lexically-specific knowledge and individual differences in adult native speakers' processing of the English passive. Language Sciences 78 ► pp. 101254 ff. DOI logo
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2017. Individual variation in syntactic processing in the second language. In Developmental Perspectives in Written Language and Literacy, DOI logo
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2017. Subject expression in L2 Spanish: Convergence of generative and usage-based perspectives?. Second Language Research 33:1 ► pp. 33 ff. DOI logo
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2016. Machine Meets Man: Evaluating the Psychological Reality of Corpus-based Probabilistic Models. Cognitive Linguistics 27:1 ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Dyson, Bronwen Patricia
2016. Variation, individual differences and second language processing. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 6:4 ► pp. 341 ff. DOI logo
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2016. Cognitive Linguistics’ seven deadly sins. Cognitive Linguistics 27:4 ► pp. 479 ff. DOI logo
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2016. Looking into introspection. In Studies in Lexicogrammar [Human Cognitive Processing, 54], ► pp. 55 ff. DOI logo
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2019. Experience, Aptitude, and Individual Differences in Linguistic Attainment: A Comparison of Native and Nonnative Speakers. Language Learning 69:S1 ► pp. 72 ff. DOI logo
Flores, Cristina, Tanja Kupisch & Esther Rinke
2016. Linguistic Foundations of Heritage Language Development from the Perspective of Romance Languages in Germany. In Handbook of Comparative Studies on Community Colleges and Global Counterparts [Springer International Handbooks of Education, ], ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
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2018. Linguistic Foundations of Heritage Language Development from the Perspective of Romance Languages in Germany. In Handbook of Research and Practice in Heritage Language Education [Springer International Handbooks of Education, ], ► pp. 621 ff. DOI logo
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2016. The sociosemiotic commitment. Cognitive Linguistics 27:4 ► pp. 527 ff. DOI logo
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2016. A usage-based account of multi-competence. In The Cambridge Handbook of Linguistic Multi-Competence, ► pp. 183 ff. DOI logo
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2016. On the Shallow Processing (Dis)Advantage: Grammar and Economy. Frontiers in Psychology 7 DOI logo
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2016. Factors Affecting Grammatical and Lexical Complexity of Long‐Term L2 Speakers’ Oral Proficiency. Language Learning 66:2 ► pp. 354 ff. DOI logo
Matusevych, Yevgen, Afra Alishahi & Ad Backus
2016. Modelling verb selection within argument structure constructions. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience 31:10 ► pp. 1215 ff. DOI logo
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2016. For a radically usage-based diachronic construction grammar. Belgian Journal of Linguistics 30 ► pp. 39 ff. DOI logo
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2017. The development of non-deontic be bound to in a radically usage-based diachronic construction grammar perspective. Lingua 199 ► pp. 72 ff. DOI logo
Noël, Dirk
2019. The author and the text in radically usage-based diachronic construction grammar, or why historical linguists have started analysing text again. Functions of Language 26:1 ► pp. 56 ff. DOI logo
Noël, Dirk
2019. The decline of the Deontic nci construction in Late Modern English. Cognitive Linguistic Studies 6:1 ► pp. 22 ff. DOI logo
Noël, Dirk
2022. Individual differences in the decline of the Deontic nci construction. Cognitive Linguistic Studies 9:1 ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Pijpops, Dirk & Freek Van de Velde
2016. Constructional contamination: How does it work and how do we measure it? . Folia Linguistica 50:2 ► pp. 543 ff. DOI logo
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2016. Formal linguistic approaches to heritage language acquisition. In Advances in Spanish as a Heritage Language [Studies in Bilingualism, 49], ► pp. 13 ff. DOI logo
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2016. Multi-factorial Studies: Populations and Linguistic Features. In Designing Research on Bilingual Development [SpringerBriefs in Linguistics, ], ► pp. 13 ff. DOI logo
Verhagen, Véronique & Maria Mos
2016. Stability of familiarity judgments: Individual variation and the invariant bigger picture. Cognitive Linguistics 27:3 ► pp. 307 ff. DOI logo
Zenner, Eline, Gitte Kristiansen & Dirk Geeraerts
2016. Individual differences and in situ identity marking. In Exploring Discourse Strategies in Social and Cognitive Interaction [Pragmatics & Beyond New Series, 262], ► pp. 39 ff. DOI logo
Cacoullos, Rena Torres & Catherine E. Travis
2015. Gauging convergence on the ground: Code-switching in the community. International Journal of Bilingualism 19:4 ► pp. 365 ff. DOI logo
Cuza, Alejandro & Joshua Frank
2015. On the role of experience and age-related effects: Evidence from the Spanish CP. Second Language Research 31:1 ► pp. 3 ff. DOI logo
Foucart, Alice
2015.  Prediction is a question of experience . Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 5:4 ► pp. 465 ff. DOI logo
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2015. Ultimate attainment in bilingual first language acquisition. Lingua 164 ► pp. 289 ff. DOI logo
Hautasaari, Ari & Naomi Yamashita
2015. Emotion Detection in Non-native English Speakers’ Text-Only Messages by Native and Non-native Speakers. In Human-Computer Interaction – INTERACT 2015 [Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 9296], ► pp. 183 ff. DOI logo
Hulstijn, Jan H.
2015. Explaining phenomena of first and second language acquisition with the constructs of implicit and explicit learning. In Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages [Studies in Bilingualism, 48], ► pp. 25 ff. DOI logo
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2019. An Individual‐Differences Framework for Comparing Nonnative With Native Speakers: Perspectives From BLC Theory. Language Learning 69:S1 ► pp. 157 ff. DOI logo
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2015. Sensitivity to extralinguistic cues to identify generic and non-generic meaning. Crossroads. A Journal of English Studies :10(3) ► pp. 4 ff. DOI logo
Sullivan, Karen
2015. If you study a word do you use it more often? Lexical repetition priming in a corpus of Natural Semantic Metalanguage publications. Corpora 10:3 ► pp. 277 ff. DOI logo
Andringa, Sible
2014. THE USE OF NATIVE SPEAKER NORMS IN CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESIS RESEARCH. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 36:3 ► pp. 565 ff. DOI logo
Andrén, Mats
2014. Multimodal constructions in children. Gesture 14:2 ► pp. 141 ff. DOI logo
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2014. A Prolegomenon to the Construct of the Native Speaker: Heritage Speaker Bilinguals are Natives Too!. Applied Linguistics 35:1 ► pp. 93 ff. DOI logo
DeKeyser, Robert M.
2013. Age Effects in Second Language Learning: Stepping Stones Toward Better Understanding. Language Learning 63:s1 ► pp. 52 ff. DOI logo
Grüter, Theres
2013.  Individual differences and the nature of the processor. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism 3:3 ► pp. 312 ff. DOI logo
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2014. Introduction. In Phonological Development, ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
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2025. What Are Individual Differences and How Do They Affect L2 Acquisition?. In Key Questions in Second Language Acquisition, ► pp. 173 ff. DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 24 november 2025. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.

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