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Article published In: Journal of Second Language Studies
Vol. 9:1 (2026) ► pp.140–170

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The predictive role of motivational orientations in L2 writing task performance across proficiency levels

 | University of NevadaReno, USA
 | Allameh Tabataba’i University, Iran
Published online: 14 November 2025
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https://doi.org/10.1075/jsls.00059.tab
Abstract
This study investigates the predictive power of motivational orientations on second language (L2) writing task performance across different proficiency levels. Drawing on the framework of motivational orientations, including Promotion, Prevention, Assessment, and Locomotion, the research explores how these orientations predict various aspects of L2 writing, such as syntactic complexity, accuracy, lexical complexity, and fluency (CALF). The study also examines the interaction between motivational orientations and learners’ writing proficiency levels. To do so, 120 undergraduate English as a foreign language (EFL) learners participated in this research, categorized into three proficiency groups (low, mid, and advanced) based on their writing placement test scores. They completed a motivation questionnaire and performed an argumentative writing task. The essays were then analyzed using CALF measures. Results revealed that Promotion positively predicted phrasal complexity and lexical sophistication. Although Promotion was a positive predictor of overall syntactic complexity for the Upper Intermediate and Advanced groups, it negatively predicted this metric for the Intermediate group. Prevention positively predicted accuracy, particularly for the Intermediate group, while negatively predicting phrasal complexity and lexical diversity in lower proficiency groups. Assessment positively predicted syntactic subordination, especially for Intermediate and Advanced learners, while negatively predicting accuracy in the Advanced group. Finally, locomotion predicted fluency, especially for the Intermediate learners, but negatively predicted accuracy in the Advanced group. These findings suggest that motivational orientations predict L2 writing task performance, with varying effects depending on L2 learners’ writing proficiency levels.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Literature review: Motivational orientations in SLA
    • 2.1Regulatory focus theory in SLA
    • 2.2Regulatory mode theory in SLA
    • 2.3Motivation and L2 writing across proficiency levels
  • 3.The current study
  • 4.Method
    • 4.1Participants and the learning context
    • 4.2Instruments
      • Writing task
      • Questionnaires
    • 4.3Data collection
    • 4.4The CALF measurement
    • 4.5Data analysis
  • 5.Results
    • 5.1Construct validity of motivation questionnaires
      • Focus questionnaire
      • Mode questionnaire
    • 5.2Results of motivation orientations and CALF across Proficiency
      • 5.2.1Syntactic complexity
        • MLTU
        • DC/T
        • CN/T
        • CN/C
      • 5.2.2Accuracy
        • EFC/C
      • 5.2.3Lexical complexity
        • Vocd
        • WRDFRQmc
      • 5.2.4Fluency
        • WMP
  • 6.Discussion
    • 6.1Prediction of L2 written argumentative task performance by mode and focus motivational orientations regarding CALF metrics
    • 6.2Variation in the predictive power of mode and focus motivational orientations by L2 learners’ proficiency levels
    • 6.3Variation in written task performance regarding CALF metrics across L2 learners with different proficiency levels
  • 7.Conclusion: Pedagogical implications, limitations, and future research directions
  • The declaration of competing interests
  • Data availability
  • References
References (83)
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