Cover not available

Article published In: Issues and Perspectives on Student Diversity and Content-Based Language Education
Edited by Fred Genesee and Diane J. Tedick
[Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education 9:2] 2021
► pp. 164–192

Get fulltext from our e-platform
JBE logo with link
PDF logo with download linkDownload PDF
authorization required
Invited article

The suitability of dual language education for diverse students

An overview of research in Canada and the United States

 | McGill University
 | San Jose State University
Published online: 5 February 2021
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/jicb.21001.gen
Abstract
Extensive research has evaluated the effectiveness of dual language (DL) programs in Canada and the U.S. The majority of that research has focused on typically-developing students who represent the majority ethnolinguistic group in the broader community. This article reviews research on the suitability of DL forms of education for students with diverse backgrounds and, in particular, students with personal, familial, or ethnolinguistic characteristics that are often associated with underachievement in school. The review begins by examining research evidence that speaks to young leaners’ capacity for learning more than one language during early stages of development. It then presents evidence from research that has examined the effectiveness of DL forms of education for diverse learners. Extant evidence indicates that young learners have the capacity to learn more than one language without jeopardizing their development and that DL education is suitable and effective for students with diverse characteristics.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Dual language development during the preschool years: A question of capacity
    • 2.1Typically-developing preschool children
    • 2.2Preschool children with developmental disorders
      • 2.2.1Children with developmental language disorder
      • 2.2.2Children with autism spectrum disorder
      • 2.2.3Children with Down Syndrome
    • 2.3Summary
  • 3.Diverse students in dual language programs
    • 3.1Ethnic diversity
      • 3.1.1Dual language programs for ethnically diverse students
        • Immersion programs
        • Developmental bilingual programs
        • Two-Way bilingual programs
        • Indigenous language revitalization programs
      • 3.1.2Ethnically diverse students who speak English
      • 3.1.3Ethnically diverse students who speak a language other than English
      • 3.1.4Immigrant students in French-English DL programs in Canada
    • 3.2Socioeconomic diversity
    • 3.3Children with special education needs
    • 3.4Summary
  • 4.Conclusions
  • Note
  • References
References (102)
References
Arias, M. B., & Fee, M. (Eds). (2018). Profiles of dual language education in the 21st century. Multilingual Matters. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Barnes, J., & Garcia, I. (2013). Vocabulary growth and composition in monolingual and bilingual Basque infants and toddlers. International Journal of Bilingualism, 17(3), 357–374. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bedore, L., Peña, E., Summers, C., Boerger, K., Resendiz, M., Greene, K., et al. (2012). The measure matters: Language dominance profiles across measures in Spanish-English bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 151, 616–629. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Beauchamp, M. L., & MacLeod, A. A. (2017). Bilingualism in children with autism spectrum disorder: Making evidence-based recommendations. Canadian Psychology, 58(3), 250–262. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bild, E., & Swain, M. (1989). Minority language students in a French immersion program: Their French proficiency. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 101, 255–274. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bird, E. K., Cleave, P., Trudeau, N., Thordardottir, E., Sutton, A., & Thorpe, A. (2005). The language abilities of bilingual children with Down Syndrome. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 14(3), 187–199. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Blom, E., & Paradis, J. (2013). Past tense production by English second language learners with and without impairment. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research, 561, 1–14. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bosch, L., Figueras, M., Teixidó, M., & Ramon-Casas, M. (2013). Rapid gains in segmenting fluent speech when words match the rhythmic unit: Evidence from infants acquiring syllable-timed languages. Frontiers in Psychology, 41, Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bruck, M. (1978). The suitability of early French immersion programs for the language disabled child. Canadian Journal of Education, 31, 51–72. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1982). Language disabled children: Performance in an additive bilingual education program. Applied Psycholinguistics, 31, 45–60. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bruck, M., Tucker, G. R., & Jakimik, J. (1975). Are French immersion programs suitable for working class students?: A follow-up investigation. Word, 271, 311–341. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Brutt-Griffler, J., & Jang, E. (2019). Dual language programs: An exploration of bilingual students’ academic achievement, language proficiencies and engagement using a mixed methods approach. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 40(4), 322–337.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Burkhauser, S., Steele, J. L., Li, J., Slater, R. O., Bacon, M., & Miller, T. (2016). Partner-language learning trajectories in dual-language immersion: Evidence from an urban district. Foreign Language Annals, 49(3), 415–433. Available at Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Caldas, S. J., & Boudreaux, N. (1999). Poverty, race, and foreign language immersion: Predictors of math and English language arts performance. Learning Language, 5(1), 4–15.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Callahan, R. M., & Gándara, P. C. (2014). The bilingual advantage: Language, literacy and the US labor market. Multilingual Matters. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cleave, P., Kay-Raining Bird, E., Trudeau, N., & Sutton, A. (2014). Syntactic bootstrapping in children with Down Syndrome: The impact of bilingualism. International Journal of Communication Disorders, 491, 42–54. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cheatham, G. A., Santos Gilbertz, R. M., & Kerkutluoglu, A. (2012). Review of comparison studies investigating bilingualism and bilingual instruction for students with disabilities. Focus on Exceptional Children, 45(3), 1–12. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Collier, V. P., & Thomas, W. P. (2017). Validating the power of bilingual schooling: Thirty-two years of large-scale, longitudinal research. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 371, 203–217. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Conboy, B. T., & Thal, D. J. (2006). Ties between the lexicon and grammar: Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies of bilingual toddlers. Child development, 77(3), 712–735. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Core, C., Hoff, E., Rumiche, R., & Senor, M. (2013). Total and conceptual vocabulary in Spanish–English bilinguals from 22 to 30 months: Implications for assessment. Journal of Speech, Hearing and Language Disorders, 56(5), 1637–1649. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
de Houwer, A. (2009). Bilingual first language acquisition. Multilingual Matters. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
de Jong, E. J., & Bearse, C. (2011). The same outcomes for all? High school students reflect on their two-way immersion program experiences. In D. J. Tedick, D. Christian, & T. W. Fortune (Eds.), Immersion education: Practices, policies, possibilities (pp. 104–122). Multilingual Matters. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
del Maschio, N., Sulpizio, S., Gallo, F., Fedeli, D., Weeks, B. S., & Abutalebia, J. (2018). Neuroplasticity across the lifespan and aging effects in bilinguals and monolinguals. Brain and Cognition, 1251, 118–126. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
de Valenzuela, J. S., Kay-Raining Bird, E., Parkington, K., Mirenda, P., Cain, K., MacLeod, A. A. N., & Segers, E. (2016). Access to opportunities for bilingualism for individuals with developmental disabilities: Key informant interviews. Journal of Communication Disorders, 631, 32–46. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dicks, J., & Genesee, F. (2016). Bilingual education in Canada. In O. Garcia and A. Lin (Eds.), Volume 5: Bilingual and multilingual Education, Encyclopedia of language and education. Springer. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Drysdale, H., van der Meer, L., & Kagohara, D. (2015). Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder from bilingual families: A systematic review. Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 21, 26–38. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Edgin, J. O., Kumar, A., Spano, G., & Nadel, L. (2011). Neuropsychological effects of second language exposure in Down Syndrome. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research, 551, 351–356. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Feltmate, K., & Kay-Raining Bird, E. (2008). Language learning in four bilingual children with Down Syndrome: A detailed analysis of vocabulary and morphosyntax. Canadian Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology, 321, 6–20.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Fortune, T., & Ju, Z. (2017). Assessing and exploring the oral proficiency of young Mandarin immersion students. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 371, 264–287. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Fortune, T., & Song, W. (2016). Academic achievement and language proficiency in early total Mandarin immersion education. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education, 4(2), 168–197. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gándara, P., & Slater, R. (2018). Confronting the equity issues in dual language immersion programs. The Civil Rights Project.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Genesee, F. (2003). Rethinking bilingual acquisition. In J. M. Dewaele (Ed.), Bilingualism: Challenges and directions for future research. (pp. 158–182). Multilingual Matters. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2004). What do we know about bilingual education for majority language students. In T. K. Bhatia & W. Ritchie (Eds.), Handbook of bilingualism and multiculturalism (pp. 547–576). Blackwell.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2015). Myths about early childhood bilingualism. Canadian Psychology, 56(1), 6–15. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2019). Language development in simultaneous bilinguals: The early years. In J. von Koss Torkildsen & J. Horst (Eds.), International handbook on language development (pp. 300–320). Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Genesee, F., & Lambert, W. E. (1983). Trilingual education for majority language children. Child Development, 541, 105–114. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Genesee, F., & Lindholm-Leary, K. (2012). The education of English language learners. In K. Harris, S. Graham, & T. Urdan, et al. (Eds.), APA handbook of educational psychology (pp. 499–526). APA Books.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2013). Two case studies of content-based language education. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education, 1(1), 3–33. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gonzalez-Barrero, A. M., & Nadig, A. (2018). Bilingual children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: The impact of amount of language exposure on vocabulary and morphological skills at school age. Autism Research 2018, 111, 1667–1678.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Grosjean, F. (1989). Neurolinguists, beware! The bilingual is not two monolinguals in one. Brain and Language, 36(1), 3–15. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gutierrez-Clellen, V., Simon-Cereijido, G., & Wagner, C. (2008). Bilingual children with language impairment: A comparison with monolinguals and second language learners. Applied Psycholinguistics, 291, 3–19. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hambly, C., & Fombonne, E. (2012). The impact of bilingual environment on language development in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 421, 1342–1352. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hart, D., Lapkin, S., & Swain, M. (1988). Ethnolinguistic minorities: Tracking success in an exemplary English-French immersion program. MLC, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Modern Language Centre.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Holobow, N. E., Genesee, F., & Lambert, W. E. (1991). The effectiveness of a foreign language immersion program for children from different ethnic and social class backgrounds: Report 2. Applied Psycholinguistics, 121, 179–198. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Howard, E. R. (2003). Biliteracy development in two-way immersion education programs: A multilevel analysis of the effects of native language and home language use on the development of narrative writing ability in English and Spanish. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Harvard University.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hussar, B., Zhang, J., Hein, S., Wang, K., Roberts, A., Cui, J., Smith, M., Bullock Mann, F., Barmer, A., & Dilig, R. (2020). The condition of education 2020 (NCES 2020–144). U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved from [URL]
Jacobs, K., & Cross, A. (2001). The seventh generation of Kahnawa`ke: Phoenix or dinosaur. In D. Christian & F. Genesee (Eds.), Case studies in bilingual education (pp. 109–121). Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kay-Raining Bird, E., Cleave, P. L., Trudeau, N., Thordardottir, E., Sutton, A., & Thorpe, A. (2005). The language abilities of bilingual children with Down syndrome. American Journal of Speech-language Pathology, 141, 187–199. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kay-Raining Bird, E., Genesee, F., & Verhoeven, L. (2016). Bilingualism in children with developmental disorders. Journal of Communication Disorders, 631, 1–14. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kay-Raining Bird, E., Lamond, E., & Holden, J. (2012). Survey of bilingualism in Autism Spectrum Disorders. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 471, 52–64. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kruk, R., & Reynolds, K. (2012). French immersion experience and reading skill development in at-risk readers. Journal of Child Language, 39(3), 580–610. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kubota, R., & Bale, J. (2020). Bilingualism – but not plurilingualism – promoted by immersion education in Canada: Questioning equity for students of English as an additional language. TESOL Quarterly, 54(3), 773–785. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lamont, D., Penner, W., Blowers, T., Mosychuk, H., & Jones, J. (1976). Evaluation of the second year of a bilingual (English-Ukrainian) program. Report Submitted to the Edmonton Public Schools.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lindholm-Leary, K. J. (2005). Understanding outcomes of diverse students in two-way bilingual immersion. Paper presented at the 13th Annual National Two-Way Bilingual Summer Conference, Monterey California.
Lindholm-Leary, K. (2011). Student outcomes in Chinese two-way immersion programs: Language proficiency, academic achievement, and student attitudes. In D. J. Tedick, D. Christian, & T. W. Fortune (Eds.), Immersion education: Practices, policies, possibilities (pp. 81–103). Multilingual Matters. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2014). Bilingual and biliteracy skills in young Spanish-speaking low-SES children: Impact of instructional language and primary language proficiency. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 17(2), 144–159. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2016a). Bilingualism and academic achievement in children in dual language programs. In E. Nicoladis & S. Montanari (Eds.), Lifespan perspectives on bilingualism (pp. 203–223). APA Books. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2016b). Students’ perceptions of bilingualism in Spanish and Mandarin dual language programs. International Multilingual Research Journal, 10(1), 59–70. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2018). Developing Spanish in dual language programs: Preschool through twelfth grade. In K. Potowski (Ed.), Handbook of Spanish as a minority/heritage language. Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2019). English language proficiency trajectories of Hispanic EL students in dual language programs. NABE Journal of Research and Practice, 9(1), 114–129.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lindholm-Leary, K. J., & Block, N. (2010). Achievement in predominantly low-SES Hispanic dual language schools. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 13(1), 1–18. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lindholm-Leary, K. & Hernández, A. M. (2011). Achievement and language proficiency of Hispanic students in dual language programmes: Native English speakers, fluent English/previous ELLs, and current ELLs. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 32(6), 1–15. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lindholm-Leary, K., & Hernández, A. (2018, October). The forgotten group: Understanding initially fluent English proficient students in dual language programs. Language Magazine, 8–41.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lindholm-Leary, K. J., & Howard, E. (2008). Language and academic achievement in two-way immersion programs. In T. W. Fortune & D. J. Tedick (Eds.), Pathways to bilingualism: Evolving perspectives on immersion education (pp. 177–200). Multilingual Matters. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mady, C. (2014). Learning French as a second official language in Canada: Comparing monolingual and bilingual students at Grade 6. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 17(3), 330–344. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2015). Immigrants outperform Canadian-born groups in French immersion: Examining factors that influence their achievement. International Journal of Multilingualism, 13(3), 298–311. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2017). The bilingual advantage for immigrant students in French immersion in Canada: Linking advantages to contextual variables. International Journal of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education, 20(3), 225–251. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Maneva, B., & Genesee, F. (2002). Bilingual babbling: Evidence for language differentiation in dual language acquisition. In B. Skarabela, S. Fish, & A. H.-J. Do (Eds.), The proceedings of the 26th Boston University Conference on Language Development (pp. 383–392). Cascadilla Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Marchman, V. A., Martínez-Sussmann, C., & Dale, P. S. (2004). The language-specific nature of grammatical development: Evidence from bilingual language learners. Developmental Science, 7(2), 212–224. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Marinova-Todd, S., & Mirenda, P. (2016). Language and communication abilities of bilingual children with ASD. In: J. Patterson & B. L. Rodriguez (Eds.), Multilingual perspectives on child language disorders (pp. 31–48). Multilingual Matters. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Morgan, G., Restrepo, M. A., & Auza, A. (2013). Comparison of Spanish morphology in monolingual and Spanish-English bilingual children with and without language impairment. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 161, 578–596. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Myers, A. (2009). Achievement of children identified with special needs in two-way Spanish immersion programs. Unpublished dissertation. Graduate School of Education and Human Development, George Washington University.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2017). Promoting the educational success of children and youth learning English: Promising futures. The National Academies Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ohashi, J. K., Mirenda, P., Marinova-Todd, S., Hambly, C., Fombonne, E., Szatmari, P., & Thompson, A. (2012). Comparing early language eevelopment in monolingual- and bilingual-exposed young children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Research In Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6(2), 890–897. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Oller, D. K., Eilers, R. E., Urbano, R., & Cobo-Lewis, A. B. (1997). Development of precursors to speech in infants exposed to two languages. Journal of Child Language, 241, 407–425. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Padilla, A. M., Fan, L., Xu, X., & Silva, D. (2013). A Mandarin/English two-way immersion program: Language proficiency and academic achievement. Foreign Language Annals, 461, 661–679. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Papagno, C., & Vallar, G. (1995). To learn or not to learn: Vocabulary in foreign languages and the problem with phonological memory. In: R. Campbell & M. Conway (Eds.), Broken memories: Case studies in memory impairment (pp. 334–343). Blackwell Publishers.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Paradis, J., Genesee, F., & Crago, M. (2021). Dual language development and disorders (3rd ed.). Brookes.
Paradis, J., Crago, M., Genesee, F., & Rice, M. (2003). French-English bilingual children with SLI: How do they compare with their monolingual peers? Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 461, 113–127. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Paradis, J., & Govindarajan, K. (2018). Bilingualism and children with developmental language and communication disorders. In: D. Miller, F. Bayram, J. Rothman & L. Serratrice (Eds.), Bilingual cognition and language: The state of the science across its subfields (pp. 347–370). John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Potowski, K. (2007). Language and identity in a dual immersion school. Multilingual Matters. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Slaughter, H. (1997). Indigenous language immersion in Hawai’i: A case study of Kula Kaiapuni Hawai’i. In R. K. Johnson & M. Swain (Eds.), Immersion education: International perspectives (pp. 105–129). Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Steele, J. L., Slater, R. O., Li, J., Zamarro, G., Miller, T., & Bacon, M. (2018). Dual-language immersion education at scale: An analysis of program costs, mechanisms, and moderators. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 40(3), 420–445. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Steele, J. L., Slater, R. O., Zamarro, G., Miller, T., Li, J., Burkhauser, S., & Bacon, M. (2017). Effects of dual-language immersion programs on student achievement: Evidence from lottery data. American Educational Research Journal, 54(1), 282S–306S. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Steele, J. L., Slater, R. O., Roberts, G., & Bowman, K. (2019). Student performance under dual language immersion scale-up in Utah. Research Brief. Retrieved from [URL]
Taylor, D. M., & Wright, S. C. (2003). Do Aboriginal students benefit from education in their heritage language? Results from a ten-year program of research in Nunavik. Canadian Journal of Native Studies, 23(1), 1–24.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. P. (2014). English learners in North Carolina dual language programs: Year 3 of this study: School year 2009–2010. North Carolina Department of Public Instruction.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Thordardottir, E. (2011). The relationship between bilingual exposure and vocabulary development. International Journal of Bilingualism, 15(4), 426–445. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2014). The relationship between bilingual exposure and morphosyntactic development. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 171, 97–114. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Trudeau, N., Kay-Raining Bird, E., Sutton, A., & Cleave, P. (2011). Développement lexical chez les enfants bilingues ayant le syndrome de Down [Lexical development in bilingual children with Down Syndrome. Enfance [Infancy], 2011(3), 383–404. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Umansky, I. M., & Reardon, S. F. (2014). Reclassification patterns among Latino English learner students in bilingual, dual immersion, and English immersion classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 51(5), 879–912. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Valicenti-McDermott, M., Tarshis, N., Schouls, M., Galdston, M., Hottinger, K., Seijo, R., & Shinnar, S. (2013). Language differences between monolingual English and bilingual English-Spanish young children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Child Neurology, 281, 945–948. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Vallar, G. & Papagno, C. (1993). Preserved vocabulary acquisition in Down’s Syndrome: The role of phonological short-term memory. Cortex, 291, 467–483. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Verhoeven, L., Steenge, J., & van Balkom, H. (2012). Linguistic transfer in bilingual children with specific language impairment (English). International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 471, 176–183. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wang, M., Jegathesan, T., Young, E., Huber, J. & Minhas, R. (2018). Raising children with Autism Spectrum Disorders in monolingual vs bilingual homes: A scoping review. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 39(5), 434–446. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Watzinger-Tharp, J., Swenson, K., & Mayne, Z. (2016). The academic achievement of Utah dual language immersion students. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 21(8), 913–928. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wilson, W. H., & Kamanā, K. (2011). Insights from Indigenous language immersion in Hawai‘i. In D. J. Tedick, D. Christian, & T. W. Fortune (Eds.), Immersion education: Practices, policies, possibilities (pp. 36–57). Multilingual Matters. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wise, N., D’Angelo, N., & Chen, X. (2016). A school-based phonological awareness intervention for struggling readers in early French immersion. Reading and Writing, 291, 183–205. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wise, N., & Chen, X. (2010). At-risk readers in French immersion: Identification and early intervention. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 131, 128–149.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Woll, B., & Grove, N. (1996). On language deficits and modality in children with Down Syndrome: A case study of twins bilingual in BSL and English. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 11, 271–278. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Xu, X., Padilla, A. M., & Silva, D. (2015). Learner performance in Mandarin immersion and high school world language programs: A comparison. Foreign Language Annals, 48(1), 26–38. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Yang, L., Leung, R., Tong, R., Uchikoshi, Y. (2018). Student attitudes and Cantonese proficiency in a Cantonese dual-immersion school. Foreign Language Annals, 51(3), 596–616. [URL]
Cited by (17)

Cited by 17 other publications

Cammarata, Laurent & Pádraig Ó Duibhir
2025. Emerging issues in content-based minority language immersion education contexts. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education 13:1 ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Cammarata, Laurent, Pádraig Ó Duibhir & Kristan Marchak
2025. Student retention in minority immersion education. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education 13:1 ► pp. 76 ff. DOI logo
Hickey, Tina M. & Thea Cameron‐Faulkner
2025. Early Bilingual Education. In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Macdonald, Dianne, Kathleen Hipfner-Boucher & Xi Chen
2025. Biliteracy for bilingual children with reading impairment. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Newell, Kirsten W., Israel Arevalo, Kathrin E. Maki & Anne F. Zaslofsky
2025. Participatory reading research: Development and application of the bilingual reading intervention targeting tool. Journal of School Psychology 110 ► pp. 101460 ff. DOI logo
Parmentier, Chloé, Morgane Simonis, Luk Van Mensel, Philippe Hiligsmann, Benoit Galand, Nathalie Lefèvre, Laura Ordonez Magro & Arnaud Szmalec
2025. Language proficiency and study achievement of pupils with dyslexia enrolled in content and language integrated learning (CLIL). International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 28:6 ► pp. 645 ff. DOI logo
Sorenson Duncan, Tamara, Ann Sutton, Fred Genesee, Xi Chen, Elizabeth Kay-Raining Bird, Stephanie Pagan & Joan Oracheski
2025. Academic achievement in English: Minority home language students in early French immersion. International Journal of Bilingualism 29:5 ► pp. 1219 ff. DOI logo
Steinlen, Anja & Thorsten Piske
2025. Majority and minority language elementary school children with and without reading difficulties in a regular foreign language and an immersion program. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education 13:1 ► pp. 31 ff. DOI logo
Sutton, Ann, Elizabeth Kay-Raining Bird, Fred Genesee, Xi Chen, Tamara Sorenson Duncan, Stephanie Pagan & Joan Oracheski
2025. An exploration of oral language profiles of students in early French immersion. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education DOI logo
Creed, Emma, Roberto Filippi & Andrew Holliman
2024. Teaching Bilingually: Unlocking the Academic and Cognitive Potential—Teachers’ Insights. Education Sciences 14:4 ► pp. 406 ff. DOI logo
Frank Schmid, Silvia
2024. The communicative CLIL classroom. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education 12:1 ► pp. 49 ff. DOI logo
Nic Aindriú, Sinéad
2024. Inclusion in Immersion Education: Identifying and Supporting Students with Additional Educational Needs. Encyclopedia 4:4 ► pp. 1496 ff. DOI logo
Sutton, Ann, Fred Genesee, Elizabeth Kay-Raining Bird, Xi Chen, Tamara Sorenson Duncan, Stephanie Pagan & Joan Oracheski
2024. Academic achievement of minority home language students with special education needs in English language of instruction and French immersion programs. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education 12:1 ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Holcomb, Leala
2023. Writing Development and Translanguaging in Signing Bilingual Deaf Children of Deaf Parents. Languages 8:1 ► pp. 37 ff. DOI logo
Holcomb, Leala, Hannah Dostal & Kimberly Wolbers
2023. Characteristics of deaf emergent writers who experienced language deprivation. Bilingual Research Journal 45:3-4 ► pp. 358 ff. DOI logo
Genesee, Fred
2022. The monolingual bias. Journal of Immersion and Content-Based Language Education 10:2 ► pp. 153 ff. DOI logo
Nic Aindriú, Sinéad, Pádraig Ó Duibhir, Lorraine Connaughton-Crean & Joe Travers
2022. The CPD Needs of Irish-Medium Primary and Post-Primary Teachers in Special Education. Education Sciences 12:12 ► pp. 909 ff. DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 13 november 2025. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.

Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue