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Modeling sound change in a dialectically heterogeneous community

The case of Rhotacism in central Borneo

ORCiD logo with link | Fudan University
Published online: 2 March 2026
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https://doi.org/10.1075/jhl.23014.smi
Abstract
Vertical and horizontal models of language relatedness, such as tree models and wave models, approach language change from two fundamentally different perspectives. Vertical models capture the diachronic nature of language differentiation but do not offer a satisfactory way to show diffusion across linguistic boundaries. Horizontal models excel at modeling diffusion but are essentially distributional models and have no temporal element. In this paper, a mixed model that incorporates both vertical and horizontal innovation spread is used to analyze the development of rhotacism in the Upper Kapuas-Mahakam languages of central Borneo. It is shown that subtle differences in the outcomes of rhotacism suggest a historical diffusion of rhotacism between dialects in a Proto-Upper Kapuas-Mahakam community. The subgroup-wide application of rhotacism interacted with other, localized changes that were restricted to specific dialects. Subgroup-wide changes therefore interact with already established dialectical divisions, leaving a mark on the historical evolution of languages in a dialectically heterogeneous community.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Rhotacism
  • 3.Upper Kapuas-Mahakam languages
  • 4.Rhotacism and Upper Kapuas-Mahakam historical phonology
  • 5.Rethinking the reconstruction of Smith (2017a)
    • 5.1l-fortition in word-initial position and issues with relative chronology
    • 5.2Relative chronology of rhotacism
    • 5.3Complications with Set 3
    • 5.4*l reflexes in other positions
  • 6.Modeling rhotacism
    • 6.1A tree-based approach
    • 6.2A mixed model approach
  • 7.Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
References (27)
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