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A longitudinal study on young learners’ extramural English, English vocabulary knowledge and attitudes towards English prior to English instruction

 | KU Leuven | Leuven Interdisciplinary Language Institute | Leuven Educational Research Institute
 | KU Leuven
 | KU Leuven | Leuven Interdisciplinary Language Institute | Leuven Educational Research Institute
ORCiD logo with link | KU Leuven | Leuven Interdisciplinary Language Institute | Leuven Educational Research Institute
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Available under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) 4.0 license.

For any use beyond this license, please contact the publisher at rights@benjamins.nl.

Open Access publication of this article was funded through a Transformative Agreement with KU Leuven.

Published online: 23 March 2026
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https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.25023.cal
Abstract
Most previous studies focusing on extramural English (EE) and vocabulary acquisition are one-off studies measuring the relationship between EE and language performance measures at one time. This study contributes to EE research by adopting a longitudinal design to investigate learners’ EE, vocabulary knowledge at the level of meaning recall, and attitudes. We collected data from two cohorts of primary school children prior to formal English instruction (ages 10–11 and ages 11–12). At two measurement times, one year apart, we measured their vocabulary knowledge in a meaning recall test, their EE engagement, and their attitudes towards English. The results indicated that young learners’ vocabulary knowledge increased significantly over time, even if engagement with EE did not increase significantly. The participants in the two cohorts had positive attitudes towards English at both measurement times. Analyses showed that English vocabulary knowledge at Time 2 was predicted by English vocabulary knowledge at Time 1.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Background
    • 2.1Young learners’ extramural English and vocabulary knowledge
    • 2.2Longitudinal research into young learners’ EE and vocabulary knowledge
    • 2.3Young learners’ attitudes towards English
  • 3.Rationale
  • 4.Research questions
  • 5.Methodology
    • 5.1Participants
    • 5.2Data collection instruments
      • Meaning recall test
      • Dutch vocabulary test
      • Questionnaire
    • 5.3Procedure
    • 5.4Scoring and analysis
  • 6.Results
    • RQ1: How does young learners’ vocabulary knowledge develop over a one-year period of time prior to formal instruction?
    • RQ2: How does young learners’ engagement with EE change over a one-year period of time prior to formal instruction?
    • RQ3: How do young learners’ attitudes towards English develop?
    • RQ4: To what extent do EE and learners’ prior vocabulary knowledge predict their vocabulary development?
  • 7.Discussion
    • 7.1Longitudinal development of vocabulary knowledge
    • 7.2Changes in engagement with extramural English activities
    • 7.3Changes in young learners’ attitudes towards English
    • 7.4Predicting vocabulary knowledge and vocabulary development
  • 8.Limitations
  • 9.Conclusion
  • Acknowledgments
  • References
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