Cover not available

Article published In: ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics: Online-First Articles

Get fulltext from our e-platform
JBE logo with link
PDF logo with download linkDownload PDF
EPUB logo with download linkDownload EPUB

Learning on their terms

Retrospective accounts of extramural English experiences among students with ADHD

ORCiD logo with link | University of Vienna
Open Access logo
Available under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) 4.0 license.

For any use beyond this license, please contact the publisher at rights@benjamins.nl.

Open Access publication of this article was funded through a Transformative Agreement with University of Vienna.

Published online: 17 March 2026
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.25021.sch
Abstract
Although cognitive and behavioral characteristics associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) can influence language learning, little is known about how learners with ADHD engage with extramural English (EE), i.e., English-mediated recreational activities. This study explored how twelve university students with ADHD reflected on their EE use during secondary school. Three themes emerged: reasons for EE use, including accessing communities and cultures beyond their own, pursuing narrative escapes, and enhancing English proficiency; activity preferences, with a favoring of audiovisual and multisensory activities over single-input formats; and EE-instruction interactions, with EE fostering feelings of mastery and instruction being perceived as comparatively inauthentic. Considering EE practices in instruction offers opportunities to address learners’ attentional differences and interest-based needs, with and without ADHD.
Article outline
  • Introduction
  • Extramural English: Leisure and learning
  • Language learning with ADHD
    • Defining ADHD
    • Language learning with ADHD
  • Research question
  • Methodology
    • Participants
    • Interviews
    • Data analysis
  • Results and discussion
    • Reasons for EE use
      • Translocal connection
      • Narrative escapes
      • Desire to excel in English
    • Activity preferences
      • Reading
      • Listening and speaking
      • Audiovisuals
    • Impact of EE on in-class experiences
      • Feelings of mastery
      • Perceived authenticity
  • Limitations
  • Conclusion
  • References
References (59)
References
Allan, R. J. (2019). Narrative immersion: Some linguistic and narratological aspects. In J. Grethlein, L. Huitink, & A. Tagliabue (Eds.), Experience, narrative, and criticism in ancient Greece (pp. 15–35). Oxford University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Arndt, H. L. (2023). Construction and validation of a questionnaire to study engagement in informal second language learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 45(5), 1456–1480. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Barkley, R. A. (2014). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (4th ed.). The Guilford Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bedrossian, L. (2021, May 1). Understand and address complexities of rejection sensitive dysphoria in students with ADHD. Disability Compliance for Higher Education, 26(10), 4. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Benson, P., & Reinders, H. (Eds.). (2011). Beyond the language classroom. Palgrave Macmillan. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bishop, C., Mulraney, M., Rinehart, N., & Sciberras, E. (2019). An examination of the association between anxiety and social functioning in youth with ADHD: A systematic review. Psychiatry Research, 2731, 402–421. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Błaszczak, A. (2023). The comorbidity of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and rejection sensitive dysphoria as an impediment in foreign language learning. Acta Humanitatis, 1(2), 93–106. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Blume, C., & Bündgens-Kosten, J. (2023). The role of digitality for neurodivergent English language learners: Agency and well-being within and outside the ELT classroom. AAA — Arbeiten aus Anglistik und Amerikanistik, 48(2), 211–234. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2022). Thematic analysis: A practical guide (1st ed.). Sage Publications. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cai, B., Cai, S., He, H., He, L., Chen, Y., & Wang, A. (2023). Multisensory enhancement of cognitive control over working memory capture of attention in children with ADHD. Brain Sciences, 13(1), 66. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
De Wilde, V., Brysbaert, M., & Eyckmans, J. (2020). Learning English through out-of-school exposure. Which levels of language proficiency are attained and which types of input are important? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(1), 171–185. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Donfrancesco, R., Di Trani, M., Porfirio, M. C., Giana, G., Miano, S., & Andriola, E. (2015). Might the temperament be a bias in clinical study on attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)? Novelty seeking dimension as a core feature of ADHD. Psychiatry Research, 227(2–3), 333–338. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied linguistics. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dvorsky, M. R., & Langberg, J. M. (2016). A review of factors that promote resilience in youth with ADHD and ADHD symptoms. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 19(4), 368–391. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ewe, L. P. (2019). ADHD symptoms and the teacher–student relationship: A systematic literature review. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 24(2), 136–155. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Henry, A. (2013). Digital games and ELT: Bridging the authenticity gap. In E. Ushioda (Ed.), International perspectives on motivation: Language learning and professional challenges (pp. 133–155). Palgrave Macmillan. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Henry, A., Korp, H., Sundqvist, P., & Thorsen, C. (2018). Motivational strategies and the reframing of English: Activity design and challenges for teachers in contexts of extensive extramural encounters. TESOL Quarterly, 52(2), 247–273. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jensen, S. H., & Lauridsen, J. T. (2023). Extramural English for early language learning: A blessing or a curse? Language Teaching for Young Learners, 5(1), 85–109. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kakoulidou, M. (2022). Understanding the role of motivation in the reading of children with ADHD-related characteristics [Doctoral dissertation, University College London]. [URL]
Kałdonek-Crnjaković, A. (2018). The cognitive effects of ADHD on learning an additional language. Govor, 35(2), 215–227. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2022). How do ADHD-type behaviours affect language learning? Voices of in-service EFL teachers in Poland. In L. McCallum (Ed.), English language teaching in the European Union: Theory and practice across the region (pp. 147–165). Springer. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2024). The effect of ADHD-type behaviours on language skills development in the classroom context from the perspective of Polish EFL teachers. Ampersand, 131, 100190. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Köder, F., Rummelhoff, C., & Garraffa, M. (2024). Learning and using multiple languages: Experiences of adults with ADHD. Ampersand, 131, 100191. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Koncz, P., Demetrovics, Z., Urbán, R., Király, O., & Griffiths, M. D. (2024). Gender-specific motivational pathways in ADHD-related inattention and gaming disorder symptoms. Addictive Behaviors, 1581, 108120. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kormos, J., & Smith, A. M. (2023). Teaching languages to students with specific learning differences. Multilingual Matters. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kusyk, M., Arndt, H., & Krause, A.-K. (2025, August). Foreign language anxiety and enjoyment in classroom-based versus informal learning [Poster presentation]. EuroSLA34, Tromsø, Norway.
Lee, J. S. (2019). Quantity and diversity of informal digital learning of English. Language Learning & Technology, 23(1), 114–126. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, J. S., & Lee, K. (2021). The role of informal digital learning of English and L2 motivational self system in foreign language enjoyment. British Journal of Educational Technology, 52(1), 358–373. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, J. S., Xie, Q., & Lee, K. (2024). Informal digital learning of English and L2 willingness to communicate: Roles of emotions, gender, and educational stage. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 45(2), 596–612. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Leppänen, S., Pitkänen-Huhta, A., Piirainen-Marsch, A., Nikula, T., & Peuronen, S. (2009). Young people’s translocal new media uses: A multiperspective analysis of language choice and hetero-glossia. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 14(4), 1080–1107. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Martin, A. J., Burns, E. C., & Collie, R. J. (2017). ADHD, personal and interpersonal agency, and achievement: Exploring links from a social cognitive theory perspective. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 501, 13–22. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
McGrath, L. M., & Stoodley, C. J. (2019). Are there shared neural correlates between dyslexia and ADHD? A meta-analysis of voxel-based morphometry studies. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 11(1), 31. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
McInnes, A., Humphries, T., Hogg-Johnson, S., & Tannock, R. (2003). Listening comprehension and working memory are impaired in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder irrespective of language impairment. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31(4), 427–443. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Muñoz, C., & Cadierno, T. (2021). How do differences in exposure affect English language learning? A comparison of teenagers in two learning environments. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 11(2), 185–212. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Newman, I. (2019). When saying “go read it again” won’t work: Multisensory ideas for more inclusive teaching and learning. Nurse Education in Practice, 341, 12–16. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Paling, R. M. (2020). An empirical study to determine whether ADHD disorder affects the process of language learning. Journal of Psychology and Neuroscience, 2(1), 1–7. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pattemore, A., & Muñoz, C. (2020). Learning L2 constructions from captioned audio-visual exposure: The effect of learner-related factors. System, 931, 102303. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Peters, E., Noreillie, A. S., Heylen, K., Bulté, B., & Desmet, P. (2019). The impact of instruction and out-of-school exposure to foreign language input on learners’ vocabulary knowledge in two languages. Language Learning, 69(3), 747–782. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Quinn, P. O., & Madhoo, M. (2014). A review of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in women and girls: Uncovering this hidden diagnosis. Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders, 16(3). Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Salari, N., Ghasemi, H., Abdoli, N., Rahmani, A., Shiri, M. H., Hashemian, A. H., Akbari, H., & Mohammadi, M. (2023). The global prevalence of ADHD in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Italian Journal of Pediatrics, 49(1), 48. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sauro, S. (2017). Online Fan Practices and CALL. CALICO Journal, 34(2), 131–146. [URL].
Schurz, A. (2025). Exploring the potential of extramural English in the development of implicit, automatized, and explicit knowledge. Language Learning, Early View. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schurz, A., & Coumel, M. (2020). Grammar teaching in ELT: A cross-national comparison of teacher-reported practices. Language Teaching Research, 27(5), 1167–1192. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schurz, A., & Sundqvist, P. (2022). Connecting extramural English with ELT: Teacher reports from Austria, Finland, France, and Sweden. Applied Linguistics, 43(5), 934–957. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schwarz, M. (2020). Beyond the walls: A mixed methods study of teenagers’ extramural English practices and their vocabulary knowledge [Doctoral dissertation, University of Vienna]. [URL]
Sedgwick, J. A., Merwood, A., & Asherson, P. (2019). The positive aspects of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A qualitative investigation of successful adults with ADHD. Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 11(3), 241–253. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sparks, R. L. (2024). Foreign language learning and learning disabilities: An historical, empirical, and cultural perspective for policies and procedures. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 35(3), 154–165. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sparks, R. L., Ganschow, L., & Patton, J. (2008). L1 and L2 literacy, aptitude, and affective variables as discriminators among high and low achieving L2 learners with special needs. In J. Kormos & E. H. Kontra (Eds.), Language learners with special needs: An international perspective (pp. 11–35). Multilingual Matters. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sparks, R., Javorsky, J., & Philips, L. (2004). College students classified with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and the foreign language requirement. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 37(2), 169–178. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sudina, E., & Plonsky, L. (2021). Academic perseverance in foreign language learning: An investigation of language-specific grit and its conceptual correlates. Modern Language Journal, 105(4), 829–857. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sundqvist, P. (2009). Extramural English matters: Out-of-school English and its impact on Swedish ninth graders’ oral proficiency and vocabulary [Doctoral dissertation, University of Karlstad]. [URL]
(2019). Commercial-off-the-shelf games in the digital wild and L2 learner vocabulary. Language Learning & Technology, 23(1), 87–113. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Thorell, L. B., Burén, J., Ström Wiman, J., Sandberg, D., & Nutley, S. B. (2024). Longitudinal associations between digital media use and ADHD symptoms in children and adolescents: A systematic literature review. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 33(8), 2503–2526. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ulfat, N. (2024). Language learning and escapism: How five Norwegian adolescents escape reality through reading and/or gaming extramurally in L2 English. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 19(5), 417–432. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Vermeulen, P. (2019, September). Well-being as the lever for successful education for students with autism [Conference presentation]. Autism-Europe’s 12th International Congress: A new dynamic for change and inclusion, Nice, France. [URL]
Volkow, N. D., Wang, G.-J., Newcorn, J. H., Kollins, S. H., Wigal, T. L., Telang, F., Fowler, J. S., Goldstein, R. Z., Klein, N., & Logan, J. (2011). Motivation deficit in ADHD is associated with dysfunction of the dopamine reward pathway. Molecular Psychiatry, 16(11), 1147–1154. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
World Health Organization. (2022). 6A05 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In International classification of diseases for mortality and morbidity statistics (11th Revision). World Health Organization. Retrieved October 29, 2025, from [URL]
Zhang, Y., & Liu, G. L. (2023). Examining the impacts of learner backgrounds, proficiency level, and the use of digital devices on informal digital learning of English: An explanatory mixed-method study. Computer Assisted Language Learning. 38(5–6), 1113–1140. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zimmerman, D. H. (1998). Identity, context, and interaction. In C. Antaki & S. Widdicombe (Eds.), Identities in talk (pp. 87–106). Sage.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue