Cover not available

Article published In: ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics
Vol. 174:2 (2023) ► pp.263–290

Get fulltext from our e-platform
JBE logo with link
PDF logo with download linkDownload PDF
EPUB logo with download linkDownload EPUB
authorization required

Measuring the visual in audio-visual input

The effects of imagery in vocabulary learning through TV viewing

ORCiD logo with link | University of Barcelona
ORCiD logo with link | University of Barcelona
Published online: 6 March 2023
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.22019.puj
Abstract
This exploratory study investigates the effects of imagery on word learning through audio-visual input. A total of 82 adolescent EFL learners were exposed to 8 episodes of a TV series under four conditions, depending on the language of the on-screen text (L1 or L2) and whether they were pre-taught target words or not. The effects of co-occurrence of the word with its image, and the image time on screen (ITOS) were explored, alongside frequency, proficiency, and learning condition variables. Results showed that both image-related variables and frequency predicted word-form learning, while only ITOS predicted word-meaning recall, with a longer exposure to image associated to higher gains, suggesting that, at this age and proficiency level, the images associated with the words can be conducive to learning.
Article outline
  • Background
    • TV series and vocabulary learning
    • TV series and imagery
    • Frequency of occurrence in viewing
  • Aim and research questions
  • Methodology
    • Participants
    • Audio-visual materials
    • Instruments
    • Imagery measures
    • Procedure
    • Scoring of vocabulary tests
    • Preliminary analysis
  • Results
    • Word-form learning
    • Word-meaning learning
  • Discussion
    • Imagery
    • Frequency of encounters
    • Learning conditions and learner variables
  • Conclusions
  • Notes
  • References
References (69)
References
Avello, D. & Muñoz, C. (forthcoming). The use of captioned-video viewing to support the development of L2 reading skills. Proceedings of the fifth ELTRIA Conference, Barcelona.
Baltova, I. (1994). The impact of video on the comprehension skills of core French students. Canadian Modern Language Review, 50(3), 507–31. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bianchi, F., & Ciabattoni, T. (2008). Captions and subtitles in EFL learning: an investigative study in a comprehensive computer environment. In Baldry, A., Pavesi, M., & Taylor Torsello, C. (Eds.) From didactas to ecolingua: An ongoing research project on translation and corpus linguistics (pp. 69–90). Trieste: Edizioni Università di Trieste. [URL]
Boers, F. (2018). Intentional versus incidental learning. The TESOL Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching, 1–6. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Brown, R., Waring, R., & Donkaewbua, S. (2008). Incidental vocabulary acquisition from reading, reading-while-listening, and listening to stories. Reading in a foreign language, 20(2), 136–163.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Brysbaert, M., Warriner, A. B., & Kuperman, V. (2014). Concreteness ratings for 40 thousand generally known English word lemmas. Behavior research methods, 46(3), 904–911. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chai, J., & Erlam, R. (2008). The effect and the influence of the use of video and captions on second language learning. New Zealand Studies in Applied Linguistics, 14(2), 25.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Charles, T., & Trenkic, D. (2015). Speech segmentation in a second language: The role of bimodal input. In Gambier, Y., Caimi, A., & Mariotti, C. (Eds.) Subtitles and language learning: Principles, strategies and practical experiences (pp. 173–198). Bern: Peter Lang.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chen, Y. R., Liu, Y. T., & Todd, A. G. (2018). Transient but effective? Captioning and adolescent EFL learners’ spoken vocabulary acquisition. English Teaching & Learning, 421, 25–56. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Danan, M. (2004). Captioning and subtitling: undervalued language learning strategies. Meta: Journal Des Traducteurs, 49(1), 67–77. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Deconinck, J., Boers, F., & Eyckmans, J. (2017). ‘Does the form of this word fit its meaning?’ The effect of learner-generated mapping elaborations on L2 word recall. Language teaching research, 21(1), 31–53. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Douglas Fir Group. (2016). A transdisciplinary framework for SLA in a multilingual world. The Modern Language Journal, 100(S1), 19–47. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Durbahn, M., Rodgers, M., & Peters, E. (2020). The relationship between vocabulary and viewing comprehension. System, 881. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Elley, W. B. (1989). Vocabulary acquisition from listening to stories. Reading Research Quarterly 24(2), 174–187. [URL].
Feng, Y., & Webb, S. (2020). Learning vocabulary through reading, listening, and viewing: Which mode of input is most effective? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 42(3), 499–523. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gullberg, M., De Bot, K., & Volterra, V. (2008). Gestures and some key issues in the study of language development. Gestures 8(2), 149–179. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hasan, A. (2000). Learners’ perceptions of listening comprehension problems. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 13(2), 137–53. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Horst, M., Cobb, T., & Meara, P. (1998). Beyond a clockwork orange: Acquiring second language vocabulary through reading. Reading in a Foreign Language 11(2), 207–23.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hulstijn, J. H. (2003). Incidental and Intentional Learning. In Doughty, C. & Long, M. H. (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (Vol. 191, pp. 349–381). MA: Blackwell. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2013). Incidental learning in second language acquisition. In Chapelle, C. A. (Ed.) The encyclopedia of applied linguistics (Vol. 51, pp. 2632–40). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jelani, N. A., & Boers, F. (2018). Examining incidental vocabulary acquisition from captioned video: Does test modality matter? ITL-International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 169(1), 169–190. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jones, L. (2004). Testing L2 vocabulary recognition and recall using pictorial and written test items. Language learning & technology 8(3), 122–143. ISSN 1094-3501Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jones, L., & Plass, J. (2002). Supporting listening comprehension and vocabulary acquisition in French with multimedia annotations. The Modern Language Journal, 86(4), 546–61. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Khan, N., Kasdar, J., Melvin, M., Blomquist, R., Huang, E., & McEwen, J. (2015). Fresh off the Boat [TV series] Los Angeles, CA: ABC.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Krashen, S. D. (2003). Explorations in language acquisition and use. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. ISBN: 0-325-00554-0Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, S. (2007). Effects of textual enhancement and topic familiarity on Korean EFL students’ reading comprehension and learning of passive form. Language Learning, 57(1), 87–118. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lindgren, E., & Muñoz, C. (2013). The influence of exposure, parents, and linguistic distance on young European learners’ foreign language comprehension. International Journal of Multilingualism, 10(1), 105–129. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Maleki, A., & Safaee Rad, M. (2011). The effect of visual and textual accompaniments to verbal stimuli on the listening comprehension test performance of Iranian high and low proficient EFL learners. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 1(1), 28–36. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Markham, P. (1999). Captioned videotapes and second-language listening word recognition. Foreign Language Annals, 32(3), 321–28. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mayer, R. (2014). The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Meara, P., & Milton, J. (2003). X_Lex: the Swansea levels test. Berkshire: Express Publishing.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Miralpeix, I. (2012, March). X_Lex and Y_Lex: A validation study. Paper presented at the 22nd Lexical Studies Conference, Newtown, UK.
Montero Perez, M. (2019). Pre-learning vocabulary before viewing captioned video: an eye-tracking study. The Language Learning Journal, 47(4), 460–478. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Montero Perez, M., Peters, E., & Desmet, P. (2018). Vocabulary learning through viewing video: the effect of two enhancement techniques. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 31(1–2), 1–26. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Montero Perez, M., Peters, E., Clarebout, G., & Desmet, P. (2014). Effects of captioning on video comprehension and incidental vocabulary learning. Language Learning and Technology, 18(1), 118–41. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Muñoz, C., Pujadas, G., & Pattemore, A. (2023). Audio-visual input for learning L2 vocabulary and grammatical constructions. Second Language Research 39(1), 13–38. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Naghizadeh, M., & Darabi, T. (2015). The impact of bimodal, Persian and no-subtitle movies on Iranian EFL learners’ L2 vocabulary learning. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 2(2), 66–79. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nation, P. (2015). Principles guiding vocabulary learning through extensive reading. Reading in a Foreign Language 27(1): 136–145.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nation, P., & Heatley, A. (2002). Range: A program for the analysis of vocabulary in texts [software]. Retrieved from: [URL]
Pellicer-Sánchez, A., & Schmitt, N. (2010). Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition from an Authentic Novel: Do “Things Fall Apart”? Reading in a Foreign Language, 22(1), 31–55.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Peters, E. (2019). The effect of imagery and on-screen text on foreign language vocabulary learning from audiovisual input. TESOL Quarterly, 53(4), 1008–1032. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Peters, E., & Webb, S. (2018). Incidental vocabulary acquisition through viewing L2 television and factors that affect learning. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40(3), 551–77. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Peters, E., Heynen, E., & Puimège, E. (2016). Learning Vocabulary through Audiovisual Input: The Differential Effect of L1 Subtitles and Captions. System 631, 134–48. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pujadas, G. (2019). Language learning through extensive TV viewing: A study with adolescent EFL learners (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Barcelona.
Pujadas, G., & Muñoz, C. (2018). What words do we learn better through TV series? The effects of age, proficiency and type of instruction. Paper presented at the Second Language Research Forum, Montreal, Canada.
(2019). Extensive viewing of captioned and subtitled TV series: A study of L2 vocabulary learning by adolescents. The Language Learning Journal, 47(4), 479–496. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2020). Examining Adolescent EFL leaners’ TV viewing comprehension through captions and subtitles. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 42(3), 551–575. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Robinson, P., Mackey, A., Gass, S. M., & Schmidt, R. (2012). Attention and awareness in second language acquisition. In Gass, S. M., & Mackey, A. (Eds.) The Routledge Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (pp. 247–267).Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rodgers, M. P. H. (2013). English language learning through viewing television: An investigation of comprehension, incidental vocabulary acquisition, lexical coverage, attitudes, and captions (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Victoria University of Wellington.
(2016). Extensive listening and viewing: The benefits of audiobooks and television. The European Journal of Applied Linguistics and TEFL, 5(2), 43–57.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rodgers, M. P. H., & Webb, S. (2011). Narrow viewing: The vocabulary in related television programs. TESOL Quarterly, 45(4), 689–717. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2020). Incidental vocabulary learning through viewing television. ITL – International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 171(2), 191–220. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Suárez, M. D. M., Gilabert, R., & Moskvina, N. (2021). The mediating role of vocabulary size, working memory, attention and inhibition in early vocabulary learning under different TV genres: An exploratory study. TESOL Journal, 12(4), e637. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sydorenko, T. (2010). Modality of input and vocabulary acquisition. Language Learning and Technology, 14(2), 50–73. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Uchihara, T., Webb, S., & Yanagisawa, A. (2019). The Effects of Repetition on Incidental Vocabulary Learning: A Meta-Analysis of Correlational Studies. Language Learning, 69(3), 559–99. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
van Zeeland, H., & Schmitt, N. (2013). Incidental vocabulary acquisition through L2 listening: A dimensions approach. System, 41(3), 609–624. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Vandergrift, L. (2007). Recent developments in second and foreign language listening comprehension research. Language Teaching, 40(3), 191–210. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Vanderplank, R. (2010). Déjà vu? A decade of research on language laboratories, television and video in language learning. Language Teaching 43(1), 1–37. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Vidal, K. (2011). A comparison of the effects of reading and listening on incidental vocabulary acquisition. Language Learning, 61(1), 219–258. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Webb, S. (2007). The effects of repetition on vocabulary knowledge. Applied Linguistics, 28(1), 46–65. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2010a). Pre-learning low-frequency vocabulary in second language television programmes. Language Teaching Research, 14(4), 501–15. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2010b). Using Glossaries to Increase the Lexical Coverage of Television Programs. Reading in a Foreign Language, 22(1), 201–221.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Webb, S., & Chang, A. C. (2015). Second language vocabulary learning through extensive reading with audio support: How do frequency and distribution of occurrence affect learning? Language Teaching Research, 19(6), 667–686. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Webb, S., & Nation, P. (2017). How vocabulary is learned. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Webb, S., & Rodgers, M. (2009a). Vocabulary demands of television programs. Language Learning, 59(2), 335–66. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2009b). The lexical coverage of movies. Applied Linguistics, 30(3), 407–27. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Winke, P., Gass, S., & Sydorenko, T. (2010). The effects of captioning videos used for foreign language listening activities. Language Learning and Technology, 14(1), 65–86. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Yang, H. Y. (2014). The effects of advance organizers and subtitles on EFL learners’ listening comprehension skills. Calico Journal, 31(3), 345–373. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cited by (7)

Cited by seven other publications

Kaderoğlu, Kadir
2026. Aligning input and assessment: Pictorial measures in audiovisual vocabulary research. Research Methods in Applied Linguistics 5:1 ► pp. 100288 ff. DOI logo
Avello, Daniela & Carmen Muñoz
2025. Exploring young L2 learners’ perceptions of their viewing experience with captioned animated cartoons. Research Methods in Applied Linguistics 4:1 ► pp. 100174 ff. DOI logo
Avello, Daniela & Carmen Muñoz
2025. Primary school learners benefit from captioned video viewing. In Early Language Education in Instructed Contexts [Language Learning & Language Teaching, 62], ► pp. 43 ff. DOI logo
Avello, Daniela & Carmen Muñoz
2025. Vocabulary Learning from Captioned Video Viewing in Primary School Learners: The Influence of Word- and Context-Related Factors. In Foreign Language Learning from Audiovisual Input [Educational Linguistics, 66], ► pp. 17 ff. DOI logo
Gesa, Ferran, Imma Miralpeix & Maria-del-Mar Suárez
2025. Extensive viewing in young English as a foreign language learners. Language Teaching for Young Learners 7:2 ► pp. 270 ff. DOI logo
Pujadas, Geòrgia & Eva Puimège
2024. Attention allocation in (L1) subtitled and (L2) captioned video viewing. In Audiovisual input and second language learning [Language Learning & Language Teaching, 61], ► pp. 74 ff. DOI logo
Alshumrani, Hassan
2023. The Learning Potential of a TV Series in Promoting L2 Incidental Learning of Idiomatic and Non-Idiomatic Phrasal Verbs. Journal of Language and Education 9:3 ► pp. 12 ff. DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 30 march 2026. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.

Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue