Cover not available

Article published In: ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics
Vol. 174:2 (2023) ► pp.291–315

Get fulltext from our e-platform
JBE logo with link
PDF logo with download linkDownload PDF
EPUB logo with download linkDownload EPUB
authorization required

Young learners’ bilingual status and cognitive development in foreign language aptitude testing

ORCiD logo with link | Universitat de Barcelona
 | Language Learning and Testing Foundation
Published online: 7 April 2023
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.22017.sua
Abstract
Young learners’ L1s preference, cognitive development and bilingual status might influence their performance on language aptitude tests, particularly if these are language-dependent. The objective of this study was to test the validity, reliability and consistency across populations of two such tests: the Modern Language Aptitude Test-Elementary in Catalan (MLAT-EC) and in Spanish (MLAT-ES). 629 bilingual students from grades 3 to 7 took the MLAT-ES and the MLAT-EC for test comparison in a counterbalanced order. The results show that their performance on both tests presented hardly any significant differences considering students’ L1 preference (Catalan, Spanish or no preference). In addition, these bilingual examinees outperformed the predominantly monolingual samples in the MLAT-ES norming study. The same score patterns related to young learner cognitive development stages were found across test versions. These results reinforce the confidence in the validity of the MLAT-E adaptations and support the hypothesis that bilingualism results in greater aptitude.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Literature review
    • 2.1L1 and cognitive development, formal education, and foreign language aptitude
    • 2.2FL aptitude and sociocultural factors
    • 2.3Bilingualism, language learning experience and FL aptitude
  • 3.The present study
    • 3.1Aims and research questions
    • 3.2Participants and procedure
    • 3.3Instruments and procedure
      • 3.3.1The MLAT-ES
      • 3.3.2The MLAT-EC
  • 4.Analysis
  • 5.Results
    • 5.1MLAT-ES depending on L1s preference per grade
    • 5.2MLAT-EC depending on L1s preference per grade
    • 5.3MLAT-EC and MLAT-ES across grades depending on participants’ L1 preference
    • 5.4MLAT-ES and MLAT-EC distributed among bilinguals compared to monolinguals
  • 6.Discussion
  • 7.Conclusions and limitations
  • References
References (61)
References
Bialystok, E. (2017). The bilingual adaptation: How minds accommodate experience. Psychological bulletin, 143(3), 233–262. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., Klein, R., & Viswanathan, M. (2004). Bilingualism, aging, and cognitive control: evidence from the Simon task. Psychology and Aging, 19(2), 290–303. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bialystok, E. & Martin, M. M. (2004). Attention and inhibition in bilingual children: Evidence from the dimensional change card sort task. Developmental Science, 7(3), 325–339. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Biedroń, A., & Véliz-Campos, M. (2021). Trainability of foreign language aptitudes in children. In J. Rokita-Ja´skow & A. Wolanin (Eds.), Facing diversity in child foreign language education, Second language learning and teaching (pp. 39–53). Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bley-Vroman, R. (2009). The evolving context of the fundamental difference hypothesis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 31(2), 175–198. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Carroll, J. B. (1981). Twenty-five years of research on foreign language aptitude. In K. C. Diller (ed.), Individual differences and universals in language learning aptitude (pp. 83–118). Newbury House.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Carroll, J. B., & Sapon, S. (1959). Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT): Manual. Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1967). Modern Language Aptitude Test-Elementary. New York: Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2002). Modern Language Aptitude Test Manual. Second Language Testing, Inc.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chipere, N. (2003). Understanding complex sentences: Native speaker variations in syntactic competence. Palgrave. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chomsky, N. (1975). Reflections on language. Pantheon.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Costa, A., Hernández, M., Sebastián-Gallés, N. (2008). Bilingualism aids conflict resolution: evidence from the ANT task. Cognition, 106(1), 59–86. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dąbrowska, E. (2019). Experience, aptitude, and individual differences in linguistic attainment: A comparison of native and nonnative speakers. Language Learning, 69(1), 72–100. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ellis, N. C. (1996). Sequencing in SLA: phonological memory, chunking, and points of order. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18(1), 91–126. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ehrman, M. E., & Oxford, R. L. (1995). Cognition plus. Correlates of language learning success. The Modern Language Journal, 79(1), 67–89. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Eisenstein, M. (1980). Childhood bilingualism and adult language learning aptitude. Applied Psychology, 26(1–2), 159–172. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ganschow, L. & Sparks, R. (1995). Effects of direct instruction in Spanish phonology on the native language skills and foreign language aptitude of at-risk foreign language learners. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 281, 107–120. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gesa, F., & Suárez, M. M. (2022). Individual differences in young learners’ L2 vocabulary development: the case of language aptitude and type of exposure. In V. De Wilde & C. Goriot (Eds.), Individual differences in L2 learning of children and adolescents (pp. 65–85). DeGruyter.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Granena, G. & Long, M. (2013). Age of onset, length of residence, language aptitude, and ultimate L2 attainment in three linguistic domains. Second Language Research 29(3), 311–343. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Grigorenko, E. A., Sternberg, R. J., & Ehrman, M. (2000). Theory-based approach to the measurement of foreign language learning ability: The Canal-F theory and test. The Modern Language Journal, 84(3), 390–405. [URL].
Hakuta, K., Bialystok, E., & Wiley, E. (2003). Critical evidence: A test of the critical-period hypothesis for second language acquisition. Psychological Science, 14(1), 31–38. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hopp, H., Vogelbacher, M., Kieseier, T., & Thoma, D. (2019). Bilingual advantages in early foreign language learning: Effects of the minority and the majority language. Learning and Instruction, 691, 99–110. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hyltenstam, K. (2018). Polyglotism. A synergy of abilities and predispositions. In K. Hyltenstam, I. Bartning, & L. Fant (Eds.), High-level language proficiency in second language and multilingual contexts (pp. 170–195). Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2021). Language aptitude and language awareness: Polyglot perspectives. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 411, 55–75. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Institut d’Estadística de Catalunya (2018). Enquesta d’usos lingüístics de la población (EULP, 2018). [URL]
Kiss, C. (2009). The role of aptitude in young learners’ foreign language learning. In M. Nikolov (Ed.), The age factor and early language learning (pp. 253–276). De Gruyter Mouton. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kiss, C., & Nikolov, M. (2005). Developing, piloting, and validating an instrument to measure young learners’ aptitude. Language Learning, 551(1), 99–150. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kormos, J. (2013). New conceptualizations of language aptitude in second language attainment. In G. Granena & M. Long (Eds.), Sensitive periods, language aptitude and ultimate attainment (pp. 131–152). John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Larsen-Freeman, D., & Long, M. H. (1991). An introduction to second language research. Longman.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Li, S. (2015). The associations between language aptitude and second language grammar acquisition: A meta-analytic review of five decades of research. Applied Linguistics, 36(3), 385–408. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2016). The construct validity of language aptitude. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 38(4), 801–342. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Meara, P. (2005). LLAMA Language Aptitude Tests. Lognostics.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Muñoz, C. (2014). The association between aptitude components and language skills in young learners. In M. Pawlak & L. Aronin (Eds.), Essential Topics in Applied Linguistics and Multilingualism, Second Language Learning and Teaching (pp. 51–68). Springer International Publishing. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nation, R. & Mclaughlin, B. (1986). Experts and novices: An information processing approach to the good language learner. Applied Psycholinguistics 7(1), 41–55. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Piaget, J. (1964). Cognitive development in children: development and learning. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 21, 176–186. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Poarch, G. J., & Van Hell, J. G. (2012). Cross-language activation in children’s speech production: Evidence from second language learners, bilinguals, and trilinguals. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 111(3), 419–438. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rogers, V. E., Meara, P., Aspinall, R., Fallon, L., Goss, T., Keey, E. & Thomas, R. (2016). Testing aptitude. EUROSLA Yearbook, 16(1), 179–210. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rogers, V., Meara, P., Barnett-Legh, T., Curry, C., & Davie, E. (2017). Examining the LLAMA aptitude tests. Journal of the European Second Language Association, 1(1), 49–60. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Safar, A., & Kormos, J. (2008). Revisiting problems with foreign language aptitude. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching (IRAL), 46(2),113–136.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Singleton, D. (2014). Apt to change: The problematic of language awareness and language aptitude in age-related research. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 4(3), 557–571. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2017). Language aptitude: Desirable traitor acquirable attribute? Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 7(1), 83–109. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Skehan, P. (1986). Where does language aptitude come from? In P. Meara (ed.), Spoken language (pp. 86–92). Centre for Information on Language Teaching.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1988). A Comparison of first and foreign language learning ability (Working Document No. 8). London: ESOL Department, Institute of Education, London University.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1989). Individual differences in second language learning. Edward Arnold.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2002). Theorising and updating aptitude. In P. Robinson (ed.), Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 69–95). John Benjamins Publishing Company. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sparks, R., & Ganschow, L. (1993). Searching for the cognitive locus of foreign language learning problems: Linking first and second language learning. Modern Language Journal, 77(3), 289–302. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sparks, R. L., & Ganschow, L. (1993). The impact of native language learning problems on foreign language learning: Case study illustrations of the Linguistic Coding Deficit Hypothesis. The Modern Language Journal, 77(1), 58–74. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sparks, R., Ganschow, L., Artzer, M., & Patton, J. (1997). Foreign language proficiency of at-risk and not-at-risk learners over two years of foreign language instruction. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30(1), 92–98. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sparks, R., Patton, J., Ganschow, L., & Humbach, N. (2009). Long-term relationships among early L1 skills, L2 aptitude, L2 affect, and later L2 proficiency. Applied Psycholinguistics, 30(4), 725–755. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sparks, R. L., Patton, J., Ganschow, L., & Humbach, N. (2011). Subcomponents of second-language aptitude and second-language proficiency. The Modern Language Journal, 95(2), 253–273. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Stansfield, C. W., Reed, D., & Velasco, A. M. (2004). Prueba de aptitud para lenguas extranjeras-Versión de primaria. Language Learning and Testing Foundation.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sternberg, R. J., & Grigorenko, E. L. (Eds.). (2002). The general factor of intelligence: How general is it? Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Suárez, M. M. (2010). Language aptitude in young learners: The Elementary Modern Language Aptitude Test in Spanish and Catalan. Doctoral dissertation, Universitat de Barcelona. [URL]
(2022). A need for an aptitude test for young learners in Catalan: The case of the Modern Language Aptitude Test – Elementary in Catalan. Language Teaching Research Quarterly, 311, 101–118. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Suárez, M. M., & Gesa, F. (2019). Learning vocabulary with the support of sustained exposure to captioned video: do proficiency and aptitude make a difference?. The Language Learning Journal, 47(3), 497–517. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tarone, E., Bigelow, M., & Hansen, K. (2013). Literacy and second language oracy. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Turker, S., Reiterer, S., Schneider, P., & Seither-Preisler, A. (2018). The neuroanatomical correlates of foreign language aptitude. In S. M. Reiterer (Ed.), Exploring language aptitude: Views from psychology, the language sciences, and cognitive neuroscience (pp. 119–149). Springer. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wells, C. G. (1985). Language development in the pre-school years. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1986). Variation in child language In P. Fletcher & T. Garman (Eds.), Language acquisition (pp. 109–139). Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wen, Z., Biedroń, A., & Skehan, P. (2017). Foreign language aptitude theory: Yesterday, today and tomorrow. Language Teaching, 50(1), 1–31. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue