Cover not available

Article published In: ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics
Vol. 172:2 (2021) ► pp.229–258

Get fulltext from our e-platform
JBE logo with link
PDF logo with download linkDownload PDF
authorization required

How well do learners know derived words in a second language?

The effect of proficiency, word frequency and type of affix

ORCiD logo with link | University of Haifa
 | University of Western Ontario
 | University of Western Ontario
 | Shaanan College of Education
Published online: 25 January 2021
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.20020.lau
Abstract
The study investigates derivational knowledge of second language (L2) learners as a function of four variables: learner proficiency, word family frequency, derived word frequency, and affix type as suggested by two affix difficulty hierarchies. Seventy-nine EFL learners at two proficiency levels received two tests, the VST – Vocabulary Size Test (Nation, I. S. P., & Beglar, D. (2007). A vocabulary size test. The Language Teacher, 31(7), 9–13.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar) and a custom-made ‘Derivatives Test’, which included derived forms of VST base words. We performed the following within-participant comparisons: knowledge of base words and knowledge of their derived forms, knowledge of derived forms from high-, medium, and low-frequency word families and knowledge of derivatives at different affix difficulty levels. Knowledge of basewords and their derivatives was statistically equivalent for advanced learners. However, a difference was found between the categories for less advanced learners. The findings also revealed learner proficiency and base word frequency effects, partial support for the two affix difficulty hierarchies, and no support for the effect of derivative frequency.
Article outline
  • Introduction
  • Background
    • Research investigating receptive knowledge of derived forms
    • Factors that may affect knowledge of derived forms
    • Hierarchies of affix knowledge
  • The study
  • Method
    • Participants
    • Data collection instruments
      • Vocabulary size test (VST)
      • Derived words test (DWT)
      • Frequency of derived words
      • Classification of derived words by word family frequency
      • Hierarchies of affix difficulties
    • Data analysis
  • Results
  • Discussion
  • Conclusion
  • Notes
  • References
References (52)
References
Aviad-Levitzky, T., Laufer, B., & Goldstein, Z. (2019). The new computer adaptive test of size and strength (CATSS): Development and validation. Language Assessment Quarterly, 16(3), 345–368. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bauer, L., & Nation, I. S. P. (1993). Word families. International Journal of Lexicography, 6(4), 253–279. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Beglar, D. (2010). A Rasch-based validation of the Vocabulary Size Test. Language Testing, 27(1), 101–118. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Brezina, V., & Gablasova, D. (2013). Is there a core general vocabulary? Introducing the new general service list. Applied Linguistics, 36(1), 1–22. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Coxhead, A. (2000). A new academic word list. TESOL Quarterly, 34(2), 213–238. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dang, T. N. Y., Coxhead, A., & Webb, S. (2017). The academic Spoken Word list. Language Learning, 67(4), 959–997. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dang, T. N. Y., & Webb, S. (2014). The lexical profile of academic spoken English. English for Specific Purposes, 33(1), 66–76. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2016). Making an essential word list for beginners. In I. S. P. Nation (Ed.), Making and using word lists for language learning and testing (pp. 153–167). Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2017). Evaluating lists of high frequency vocabulary. ITL – International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 167(2), 132–158. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
de Groot, A. M. B., & Keijzer, R. (2000). What is hard to learn is easy to forget: The roles of word concreteness, cognate status, and word frequency in foreign-language vocabulary learning and forgetting. Language Learning, 50(1), 1–56. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Elgort, I. (2012). Effects of L1 definitions and cognate status of test items on the Vocabulary Size Test. Language Testing, 30(2), 253–272. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ellis, N. C., & Beaton, A. (1993). Psycholinguistic determinants of foreign language vocabulary learning. Language Learning, 43(4), 559–617. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gardner, D., & Davies, M. (2013). A new academic vocabulary list. Applied Linguistics, 35(3), 305–327. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hirsh, D., & Nation, I. S. P. (1992). What vocabulary size is needed to read unsimplified texts for pleasure? Reading in a Foreign Language, 8(2), 689–696. Retrieved from [URL]
Kremmel, B. (2016). Word families and frequency bands in vocabulary tests: Challenging conventions. TESOL Quarterly, 50(4), 976–987. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kremmel, B., & Schmitt, N. (2018). Vocabulary levels test. In J. I. Liontas, M. DelliCarpini & J. C. Riopel (Eds.), The TESOL encyclopedia of English language teaching (pp. 1–7). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Laufer, B. (1990). Ease and difficulty in vocabulary learning: Some teaching implications. Foreign Language Annals, 23(2), 147–155. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1997). What’s in a word that makes it hard or easy? Intralexical factors affecting the difficulty of vocabulary acquisition. In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy (pp. 140–155). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2013). Lexical thresholds for reading comprehension: What they are and how they can be used for teaching purposes. TESOL Quarterly, 47(4), 867–872. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2020). Lexical coverages, inferencing unknown words and reading comprehension: How are they related? TESOL Quarterly. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Laufer, B., & Cobb, T. (2020). How much knowledge of derived words is needed for reading? Applied Linguistics, 41(6), 971–998. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Laufer, B., & Ravenhorst-Kalovski, G. C. (2010). Lexical threshold revisited: Lexical text coverage, learners’ vocabulary size and reading comprehension. Reading in a Foreign Language, 22(1), 15–30. Retrieved from [URL]
McLean, S. (2018). Evidence for the adoption of the flemma as an appropriate word counting unit. Applied Linguistics, 39(6), 823–845. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nagy, W. E., Anderson, R. C., Schommer, M., Scott, J. A., & Stallman, A. C. (1989). Morphological families in the internal lexicon. Reading Research Quarterly, 24(3), 263–282. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nation, I. S. P. (1983). Testing and teaching vocabulary. Guidelines, 5(1), 12–25. Retrieved from [URL]
(2006). How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening? Canadian Modern Language Review, 63(1), 59–82. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2012). Teaching language in use: Vocabulary. In M. Eisenmann & T. Summer (Eds.), Basic issues in EFL teaching and learning (pp. 103–116). Heidelberg, Germany: Universitätsverlag Winter.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nation, I. S. P., & Beglar, D. (2007). A vocabulary size test. The Language Teacher, 31(7), 9–13.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nation, I. S. P., & Wang, K. (1999). Graded readers and vocabulary. Reading in a Foreign Language, 12(2), 355–380. Retrieved from [URL]
Nation, I. S. P., & Webb, S. (2011). Researching and analyzing vocabulary. Boston, MA: Heinle, Cengage Learning.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nguyen, T. M. H., & Webb, S. (2017). Examining second language receptive knowledge of collocation and factors that affect learning. Language Teaching Research, 21(3), 298–320. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Noreillie, A., Kestemont, B., Heylen, K., Desmet, P., & Peters, E. (2018). Vocabulary knowledge and listening comprehension at an intermediate level in English and French as foreign languages An approximate replication study of Stæhr (2009). ITL – International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 169(1), 212–231. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nurmukhamedov, U., & Webb, S. (2019). Lexical coverage and profiling. Language Teaching, 52(2), 188–200. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Peters, E. (2020). Factors affecting the learning of single-word items. In S. Webb (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of vocabulary studies, (pp. 81–96). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Peters, E., Velghe, T., & Van Rompaey, T. V. (2019). The VocabLab tests: The development of an English and French vocabulary test. ITL – International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 170(1), 53–78. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rogers, J., Webb, S., & Nakata, T. (2015). Do the cognacy characteristics of loanwords make them more easily learned than noncognates? Language Teaching Research, 19(1), 9–27. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sasao, Y., & Webb, S. (2017). The word part levels Test. Language Teaching Research, 21(1), 12–30. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schmitt, N., Jiang, X., & Grabe, W. (2011). The percentage of words known in a text and reading comprehension. Modern Language Journal, 95(1), 26–43. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schmitt, N., Schmitt, D., & Clapham, C. (2001). Developing and exploring the behaviour of two new versions of the Vocabulary Levels Test. Language Testing, 181, 55–88. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schmitt, N., & Zimmerman, C. B. (2002). Derivative word forms: What do learners know? TESOL Quarterly, 36(2), 145–171. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Stæhr, L. S. (2009). Vocabulary knowledge and advanced listening comprehension in English as a foreign language. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 31(4), 577–607. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Uchihara, T., Webb, S., & Yanagisawa, A. (2019). The effects of repetition on incidental vocabulary learning: A meta-analysis of correlational studies. Language Learning, 69(3), 559–599. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Van Zeeland, H., & Schmitt, N. (2013). Lexical coverage in L1 and L2 listening comprehension: The same or different from reading comprehension? Applied Linguistics, 34(4), 457–479. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Vilkaitė-Lozdienė, L., & Schmitt, N. (2020). Frequency as a guide for vocabulary usefulness: High-, mid-, and low frequency words. In S. Webb (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of vocabulary studies (pp. 81–96). New York, NY: Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ward, J., & Chuenjundaeng, J. (2009). Suffix knowledge: Acquisition and applications. System, 37(3), 461–469. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Webb, S., & Chang, A. C.-S. (2015a). Second language vocabulary learning through extensive reading with audio support: How do frequency and distribution of occurrence affect learning? Language Teaching Research, 19(6), 667–686. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2015b). How does prior word knowledge affect vocabulary learning progress in an extensive reading program? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 37(4), 651–675. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Webb, S., & Rodgers, M. P. H. (2009a). Vocabulary demands of television programs. Language Learning, 59(2), 335–366. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2009b). The lexical coverage of movies. Applied Linguistics, 30(3), 407–427. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Webb, S., Sasao, Y., & Ballance, O. (2017). The updated Vocabulary Levels Test: Developing and validating two new forms of the VLT. ITL – International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 168(1), 33–69. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
West, M. (1953). A general service list of English words. London, UK: Longman, Green & Co.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cited by (29)

Cited by 29 other publications

Chen, Shuping & Longhai Yu
2026. Effects of pre-listening morphological intervention on the acquisition and retention of L2 aural multimorphemic words. Acta Psychologica 264 ► pp. 106518 ff. DOI logo
Kremmel, Benjamin
2026. Words and Counting Units. In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Reini, Anna
2026. Knowledge of receptive English morphology among Finnish university students: L2 learners’ morpheme recognition and its implications to vocabulary learning. European Journal of Applied Linguistics 14:1 ► pp. 182 ff. DOI logo
Iwaizumi, Emi
2025. How much receptive affix knowledge do L1 speakers and L2 learners have?. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 176:1 ► pp. 111 ff. DOI logo
Matthews, Joshua, Brett Milliner & Stuart McLean
2025. Can Learners Understand Words with Derivational Affixes and Does Presence of Context Make a Difference?. RELC Journal 56:2 ► pp. 273 ff. DOI logo
Min, Changyong & Apisak Sukying
2025. Measuring derivational knowledge of Chinese EFL learners: the effect of explicit instruction. Language Awareness ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Miralpeix, Imma
2025. Vocabulary Size in a Second Language. In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Shi, Jiaxuan, Barry Lee Reynolds & Brian V. Rusk
2025. Incidental learning of English derivational noun suffixes through reading: an eye-tracking study. Applied Psycholinguistics 46 DOI logo
Tran, Phuong Nhi, Pham Thi Hong Nhung, Huy Van Nguyen & Bao Trang Thi Nguyen
2025. Vietnamese EFL Learners’ Productive Derivative Knowledge: Contextualized Derivative Recall Test Performance and Its Relationship with Derivative Misuse in Argumentative Essays. rEFLections 32:3 ► pp. 1470 ff. DOI logo
Yuan, Xin & Xuan Tang
2025. The effect of pre-reading morphological intervention on the acquisition and retention of morphologically complex words. System 131 ► pp. 103641 ff. DOI logo
Finlayson, Natalie, Emma Marsden & Rachel Hawkes
2024. Creating and evaluating corpus-informed word lists for adolescent, beginner-to-low-intermediate learners of French, German, and Spanish. Language Teaching Research DOI logo
Kuehnast, Milena, Konstantin Schulz & Anke Lüdeling
2024. Development of basic reading skills in Latin: a corpus-based tool for computer-assisted fluency training. Cogent Education 11:1 DOI logo
Mathieson, Paul, Francesco Bolstad & Yosuke Sasao
2024. Developing a Word Family-Based Depth of Academic Word Knowledge Test. European Journal of English Language Studies volume-4-2024:volume-4-issue-3-september-2024 ► pp. 137 ff. DOI logo
Milliner, Brett, Kriss Lange, Joshua Matthews & Riko Umeki
2024. Examining EFL learners’ comprehension of derivational forms: The role of overlap with base word knowledge, word frequency, and contextual support. Language Teaching Research DOI logo
Stoeckel, Tim, Stuart McLean, Young Ae Kim, Yukie Shinhara & Allie Spencer Patterson
2024. The role of context in the word family debate. System 126 ► pp. 103453 ff. DOI logo
Volodina, Elena, Yousuf Ali Mohammed & Therese Lindström Tiedemann
2024. Swedish word family resource. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 175:1 ► pp. 127 ff. DOI logo
Finlayson, Natalie, Emma Marsden & Laurence Anthony
2023. Introducing MultilingProfiler: An adaptable tool for analysing the vocabulary in French, German, and Spanish texts. System 118 ► pp. 103122 ff. DOI logo
Kim, Young Ae, Tim Stoeckel & Stuart McLean
2023. Can Japanese learners of English comprehend inflectional and derivational forms in listening? Testing the validity of the word family counting unit. The Modern Language Journal 107:3 ► pp. 819 ff. DOI logo
Laufer, Batia & Esther Emma Vaisman
2023. Out‐of‐classroom L2 vocabulary acquisition: The effects of digital activities and school vocabulary. The Modern Language Journal 107:4 ► pp. 854 ff. DOI logo
Stoeckel, Tim, Tomoko Ishii, Young Ae Kim, Hung Tan Ha, Nam Thi Phuong Ho & Stuart McLean
2023. A comparison of contextualized and non-contextualized meaning-recall vocabulary test formats. Research Methods in Applied Linguistics 2:3 ► pp. 100075 ff. DOI logo
Ha, Hung Tan
2022. Lexical Profile of Newspapers Revisited: A Corpus-Based Analysis. Frontiers in Psychology 13 DOI logo
Lyashevskaya, Olga Nikolaevna, Julia Vyacheslavovna Pyzhak & Olga Il'inichna Vinogradova
2022. Word-formation complexity: a learner corpus-based study. Russian Journal of Linguistics 26:2 ► pp. 471 ff. DOI logo
Snoder, Per & Batia Laufer
2022. EFL Learners' Receptive Knowledge of Derived Words: The Case of Swedish Adolescents. TESOL Quarterly 56:4 ► pp. 1242 ff. DOI logo
Iwaizumi, Emi & Stuart Webb
2021. To what extent does productive derivational knowledge of adult L1 speakers and L2 learners at two educational levels differ?. TESOL Journal 12:4 DOI logo
Iwaizumi, Emi & Stuart Webb
2023. To What Extent Do Learner‐ and Word‐Related Variables Affect Production of Derivatives?. Language Learning 73:1 ► pp. 301 ff. DOI logo
Iwaizumi, Emi & Stuart Webb
2024. The effect of test format on productive recall of derivatives. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics 175:2 ► pp. 242 ff. DOI logo
Laufer, Batia
2021. LEMMAS, FLEMMAS, WORD FAMILIES, AND COMMON SENSE. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 43:5 ► pp. 965 ff. DOI logo
Laufer, Batia
2024. Understanding L2-derived words in context: Is complete receptive morphological knowledge necessary?. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 46:1 ► pp. 200 ff. DOI logo
Webb, Stuart
2021. WORD FAMILIES AND LEMMAS, NOT A REAL DILEMMA. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 43:5 ► pp. 973 ff. DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 30 march 2026. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.

Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue