Part I.Background and theory

Chapter 1.Studying language attitudes and ideologies8

1.1Standard languages and standardisation9

1.2Standard language ideology, prescriptivism and purism10

1.2.1Standard language ideology10

1.2.2Prescriptivism and descriptivism11

1.2.3Purism13

1.2.4Summary of concepts14

1.3Approaches to the study of prescriptivism15

1.4Conclusion19

Chapter 2.A history of language commentary in France from the 16th
to the 21st century20

2.1Standardisation and metalinguistic texts in France20

2.1.1France as a special case?31

2.2Tropes in language commentary32

2.3Introducing the corpus35

2.3.1Le Courrier de Vaugelas37

2.3.2Courrier des internautes40

2.3.3Langue sauce piquante42

2.3.4Bescherelle ta mère43

2.4Situating the corpora44

2.5Methodological considerations for the use of historical and online metalinguistic data46

2.5.1Methodological considerations: Historical data46

2.5.2Methodological considerations: Online data48

2.5.3Methodological considerations: Ethics49

2.6Conclusion50

Chapter 3.Examining the corpora: The experts and their audiences52

3.1Le Courrier de Vaugelas52

3.1.1Éman Martin, the editor of Le Courrier de Vaugelas52

3.1.2The audience: Le Courrier de Vaugelas54

3.1.2.1Courrier readers: Geographic locations55

3.1.2.2Courrier readers: Occupations58

3.1.2.3Courrier readers: Education and access to texts61

3.1.2.4Courrier readers: Women63

3.1.2.5Courrier readers: Frequent contributors65

3.1.2.6Summary: Le Courrier de Vaugelas readership66

3.2Courrier des internautes67

3.2.1The Académie française and the Service du Dictionnaire67

3.2.2The audience: Courrier des internautes68

3.2.2.1Internautes users: Geographic locations69

3.2.2.2Internautes users: Occupations73

3.2.2.3Internautes users: Women75

3.2.2.4Summary: Courrier des internautes users76

3.3Langue sauce piquante77

3.4Bescherelle ta mère80

3.5Conclusion81

Part II.Analysis of sources

Chapter 4.Areas of doubt and difficulty in the French language: Le Courrier de Vaugelas (19th century) and the Courrier des internautes (21st century)86

4.1Categorisation of language topics addressed in the Courrier
and Internautes87

4.2Comparing readers’ doubts from France and abroad: Courrier and Internautes91

4.3Comparing readers’ doubts and difficulties: Courrier and Internautes94

4.3.1Language history97

4.3.2Meaning101

4.3.3Morpho-syntax105

4.3.4Spelling110

4.3.5Vocabulary113

4.3.6Phonology and pronunciation118

4.3.7Style123

4.3.8Metalinguistic questions and opinions about language126

4.4Conclusion126

Chapter 5.Creating and negotiating authority: Le Courrier de Vaugelas (19th century) and the Courrier des internautes (21st century)129

5.1Data samples for qualitative analysis129

5.2Use of external authorities131

5.2.1Language reference works138

5.2.2Literature144

5.2.3Summary: References to authorities in the Courrier and Internautes149

5.3Language use and rhetorical devices150

5.3.1Language and correctness151

5.3.2Advising and prescribing156

5.3.3The use of personal pronouns160

5.3.4Summary: Language use and rhetorical devices in the Courrier and Internautes163

5.4Conclusion164

Chapter 6.Strategies of critique and justification in language advice publications from the 19th century (Le Courrier de Vaugelas) and the 21st
century (Courrier des internautes)166

6.1Common tropes167

6.1.1Analogy and anomaly167

6.1.2Logic172

6.1.3Usage174

6.1.4Old is best181

6.1.5French is beautiful, elegant and rich183

6.1.6Summary: Recurring tropes in the Courrier and Internautes185

6.2Imagery186

6.2.1Disease and pain187

6.2.2Battles, attack and defence190

6.2.3Law and punishment194

6.2.4Fear196

6.2.5Summary: Images of language198

6.3Conclusion199

Chapter 7.Online language commentary from the “audience” perspective: Comment analysis (Langue sauce piquante and Bescherelle ta mère)200

7.1Data samples: Langue sauce piquante and Bescherelle ta mère203

7.2“Error” types206

7.3Humour in online language commentary212

7.4Tropes and images: Langue sauce piquante and Bescherelle ta mère216

7.4.1Aesthetic judgements217

7.4.2Emotional and physical reactions: Suffering, pain and death219

7.4.3Declining standards221

7.4.4Comprehensibility and “Frenchness”227

7.5Conclusion229

Conclusion232

Comparing across time232

Insecurities233

Authorities234

Features of dialogic language commentary235

Ideologies in language commentary237

Bibliography240

Primary sources240

Secondary sources240

Index

Table of contents

Part I.Background and theory

Part II.Analysis of sources