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Article published In: Solitude Speech across Languages and Cultures
Edited by Mitsuko Narita Izutsu and Katsunobu Izutsu
[International Journal of Language and Culture 12:1] 2025
► pp. 118–154

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When to prefer split-self conceptions

Self-reference in solitude speech in Ainu, English, Japanese, and Korean

 | Hokkaido University of Education
 | Kanazawa University
 | Fuji Women’s University
Published online: 5 February 2026
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https://doi.org/10.1075/ijolc.00071.izu
Abstract
Self-referential solitude speech invokes diverse conceptions of its speakers in different languages. In unvocalized solitude speech, the speakers are conceptualized as hearing their other selves in Ainu, as directing the speech to their other selves in English, and as holding the speech content in mind rather than directing the speech to themselves in Japanese and Korean. These four languages further differ in the range of pronominal reference to the thinking and speaking self in solitude speech. Ainu prefers second-person self-reference in unvocalized speech, not in vocalized speech, English and Korean encourage or tolerate second-person self-reference in both vocalized and unvocalized speech, and Japanese disfavors second-person self-reference in both types of speech. These cross-linguistic similarities and differences can reflect socio-cultural assumptions and worldviews of the relevant linguistic communities. We explore some relations between each language’s (dis)preference for solitude speakers’ split-self conception and assumptions/worldviews that encourage or discourage that conception.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Variations of self-referential solitude speech
    • 2.1(Un)directed self-referential speech
    • 2.2(Un)vocalized solitude speech
    • 2.3Self-referential solitude speech
  • 3.Self-referential solitude speech reported in narratives
    • 3.1Two types of split-self conception
    • 3.2Second-person self-reference
    • 3.3Conflicting selves
    • 3.4Pretended solitude speech
  • 4.Self-referential solitude speech in everyday utterances
    • 4.1Mixed-person self-reference reported in everyday spoken discourse
    • 4.2Preference for second-person self-reference reported in spoken discourse
    • 4.3Self-referential solitude speech, unreported in spoken discourse
  • 5.Motivations for second-person self-reference in split-self conception
    • 5.1Directive force
    • 5.2Reporting unvocalized speech in conversation
  • 6.Linguistic worldviews and socio-cultural correlatives
    • 6.1Difficulty with being in solitude
    • 6.2Dispreference for referring to oneself using second-person pronominals
  • 7.Conclusion
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • References
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