We describe a computational system for automatic analysis of syntactic complexity in second language writing using fourteen different measures that have been explored or proposed in studies of second language development. The system takes a written language sample as input and produces fourteen indices of syntactic complexity of the sample based on these measures. The system is designed with advanced second language proficiency research in mind, and is therefore developed and evaluated using college-level second language writing data from the Written English Corpus of Chinese Learners (Wen et al. 2005). Experimental results show that the system achieves very high reliability on unseen test data from the corpus. We illustrate how the system is used in an example application to investigate whether and to what extent each of these measures significantly differentiate between different proficiency levels
2026. Knowledge construction modes in humanities and social sciences: A cross-disciplinary analysis through linguistic complexity lens. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 79 ► pp. 101600 ff.
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2025. Assessing writing quality using crowdsourced non-expert comparative judgement ratings. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice 32:1 ► pp. 33 ff.
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2025. Relationship between grammar and schizophrenia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Communications Medicine 5:1
Femmer, Henning, Frank Houdek, Max Unterbusch & Andreas Vogelsang
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2025. The dynamics of changes in linguistic complexity and writing scores in timed argumentative writing among beginning-level EFL learners. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 63:4 ► pp. 2891 ff.
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2025. Exploring the impact of intermodal transfer on simplification: Insights from signed language interpreting, subtitle translation, and native speech in TED talks. Language Sciences 110 ► pp. 101726 ff.
Liang, Lijin
2025. The impact of using DeepL Translator on Chinese EFL students’ story writing. Journal of China Computer-Assisted Language Learning 5:1 ► pp. 56 ff.
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2025. Does ChatGPT simplify texts like expert teachers? Linguistic features of simplified texts. Reading and Writing
Liu, Jinlu, Nan Yang & Haitao Liu
2025. Quantitative relationship between distribution of sentence length and dependency distance in Spanish. Linguistics Vanguard
Liu, Liming
2025. The role of adverbial clauses as a feature of clausal complexity in L2 academic writing: A usage-based, discourse perspective. Applied Corpus Linguistics 5:3 ► pp. 100154 ff.
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Long, Yijun & Haitao Liu
2025. Measuring complexity of the objects of the verb give across English varieties: a study of constituent length and dependency distance. Poznan Studies in Contemporary Linguistics 61:3 ► pp. 285 ff.
Lu, Xiaojun, Andrea Révész, Marije Michel, Nektaria Kourtali, Minjin Lee & Lais Borges
2025. Investigating the relationships of writing behaviours to linguistic complexity and accuracy in independent and integrated writing task performance. Applied Linguistics Review 16:4 ► pp. 1551 ff.
Lu, Xiaojun & Yui Suzukida
2025. Relationships of Linguistic Complexity and Accuracy to Functional Adequacy Across L2 English Speaking and Writing: Roles of L2 Proficiency and Task Type. International Journal of Applied Linguistics
Ma, Yue & Xiao Han
2025. A Corpus-Based Study of Syntactic Complexity in L2 Japanese Writing: Insights from Usage-Based Approaches. Languages 10:11 ► pp. 286 ff.
Maamuujav, Undarmaa
2025. Relations of linguistic features, rhetorical moves, and writing quality in academic writing of secondary students. International Journal of Educational Research Open 9 ► pp. 100505 ff.
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2025. Automated analysis of common errors in L2 learner production: Prototype web application development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 47:3 ► pp. 867 ff.
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2025. Can digital collaborative writing intervention promote L2 learners’ writing performance and co-regulated learning: A mixed-methods design. Journal of Second Language Writing 69 ► pp. 101233 ff.
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Qin, Wenjuan, Weiran Wang & Yongyan Zheng
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2025. Non-finite clause use in disciplinary research writing: a formulaic sequence-based functional comparison between expert and student writers. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching
Rojas-Alfaro, Roberto
2025. Non-formal interviews as model interfaces: A case for deep learning in workplace instructional design research. Inovacije u nastavi 38:1 ► pp. 27 ff.
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2025. Protocol for detection and monitoring of post-stroke cognitive impairment through AI-powered speech analysis: a mixed methods pilot study. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 17
Shen, Bin, Weili Xing, Ziqian Lin, Michael Yi-Chao Jiang, Di Zou & Morris Siu-Yung Jong
2025. The Effects of Spherical Video-Based Virtual Reality (SVVR) on Chinese University EFL Learners’ Writing Complexity. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher 34:4 ► pp. 1385 ff.
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2025. Linguistic indicators differentiating translated and untranslated diplomatic discourse: A diachronic analysis of the United Nations General Debate (1946–2022). Lingua 320 ► pp. 103933 ff.
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2025. Leveraging the Graph-Based LLM to Support the Analysis of Supply Chain Information. Informatics 12:4 ► pp. 124 ff.
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2025. AI-generated, L2 learner, and native German writing: a comparative analysis of linguistic complexity. Glottotheory 16:2 ► pp. 127 ff.
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2025. Stylistic nuances through syntactic complexity: A corpus-assisted study of narration and dialogue in two english translations of Hongloumeng. Applied Corpus Linguistics 5:2 ► pp. 100125 ff.
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2025. Longitudinal development of L2 learners’ linguistic complexity in reading-to-write argumentative tasks. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 75 ► pp. 101502 ff.
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2025. Effects of prior knowledge and reasoning demands on Chinese EFL writing performance. Language Teaching Research 29:3 ► pp. 1264 ff.
2025. Intent‐Based Versus GPT‐Based Conversational Agents: Benefits and Challenges for Practicing and Assessing Oral Interaction. TESOL Quarterly 59:S1
Vedder, Ineke
2025. THE INFLUENCE OF RATING EXPERTISE AND LANGUAGE BACKGROUND ON JUDGMENTS OF SYNTACTIC COMPLEXITY IN L2 WRITING IN ITALIAN. Italiano LinguaDue 16:2 ► pp. 36 ff.
Wang, Kaixuan, Lawrence Jun Zhang & Maria Cooper
2025. Metacognitive Instruction for Improving the Effectiveness of Collaborative Writing for EFL Learners’ Writing Development. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher 34:2 ► pp. 661 ff.
Wang, Tingting & Dandan Zhou
2025. Predictive Effects of Phraseological Complexity on the Quality of Chinese EFL Learners’ L2 Oral Production. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 35:2 ► pp. 810 ff.
Wang, Xinyi
2025. Motivation Towards English Learning and the Acquired Proficiency in ESL: A Study of Native Speakers of Chinese in the UK and Chinese Universities. Journal of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences 57 ► pp. 95 ff.
Wang (王威然), Weiran, Wenjuan Qin (秦文娟) & Linyi Wang (王琳艺)
2025. Does Higher Grade Indicate More Complex Language Usage? Exploring Syntactic Complexity Development Among High School EFL Learners. ECNU Review of Education 8:2 ► pp. 557 ff.
Wu, May y. & Marije Michel
2025. Complexity, Accuracy, and Fluency (CAF) as a Pedagogical Target. In The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, ► pp. 1 ff.
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2025. Language interference in Mandarin Chinese-English simultaneous interpreting: insights from multi-dimensional syntactic complexity. Lingua 325 ► pp. 104005 ff.
Yamashita, Taichi
2025. Examining English language learners’ longitudinal development of syntactic complexity across five CEFR levels with a robust measurement design: A mixed-methods approach. Applied Linguistics
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Year, Jung-eun
2025. Examining Syntactic Complexity Across Proficiency Levels in Argumentative Essays by Korean EFL Learners. Modern English Education 26:0 ► pp. 290 ff.
Zao, Binji & Huiyu Zhang
2025. Comparing the Readability of English-Language CEO Statements in Chinese and American CSR Reports: A Linguistic Complexity Perspective. IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication 68:4 ► pp. 497 ff.
Zhang, Haobo & Lei Lei
2025. AlphaLexChinese: Measuring lexical complexity in Chinese texts and its predictive validity for L2 writing scores. System 134 ► pp. 103809 ff.
Zhang, Jianhua & Lawrence Jun Zhang
2025. Reexamining the relationship between syntactic complexity and human judgment of EFL writing quality: the role of genre and rating levels. Reading and Writing
Zhang, Wenkang, Rui Xie, Yao Yao & Dechao Li
2025. Lexico‐Syntactic Complexity in Machine Interpreting: A Corpus‐Based Comparison With Human Interpreting and Translation. International Journal of Applied Linguistics
Zhang, Xian
2025. Trends in language assessment and testing: A bibliometric study. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 15:1 ► pp. 171 ff.
Zhang, Xiaopeng & Xiaofeng Yang
2025. Verbal diversity within constructions as a predictor of L2 writing proficiency. Journal of Second Language Writing 68 ► pp. 101205 ff.
2025. The Effect of Alignment on the Listening and Speaking Continuation Task. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 35:2 ► pp. 863 ff.
Zhang, Yuan, Zewen Wang & Dawit Dibekulu
2025. The relationship of syntactic complexity and rhetorical move-steps in research article discussions: A comparative analysis of Chinese and native English writers. PLOS One 20:10 ► pp. e0334860 ff.
Zhao, Ruihua & Siyu Zhuang
2025. From Chinese Classic to South Korean Adaptation: A Multimodal Analysis of Transmedia Cultural Mediation in Journey to the West’s Animated and Television Versions. Journal of Cultural Interaction in East Asia
Zhou, Xiao & Qi Wang
2025. Genre effects on alignment and writing quality in the continuation task by Chinese EFL learners. Applied Linguistics Review 16:3 ► pp. 1225 ff.
Zhu, Zhouye & Wenxin Xiong
2025. Syntactic complexity and L2 Chinese proficiency: An analysis of Malaysian CSL learners’ writing. Journal of Second Language Writing 70 ► pp. 101242 ff.
Zhuang, Binyuan, Shuting Hu & Lijuan Liang
2025. Attention to L2 morpho-syntactic form across visual and aural modalities and the modulation of working memory: ERP evidence. Journal of Neurolinguistics 76 ► pp. 101286 ff.
俞, 一帆
2025. A Study of Syntactic Differences in Abstracts of Different Disciplines from the Perspective of Social Constructivism—Taking Computer Science and Applied Linguistics as an Example. Modern Linguistics 13:07 ► pp. 123 ff.
汤, 小艺
2025. A Bibliometric Analysis of Dynamic Evolution Trends in International Writing Assessment Studies. Modern Linguistics 13:07 ► pp. 545 ff.
肖, 金美
2025. A Study of Reading Text Complexity in Chinese Senior High School English Textbooks under the New Curriculum Reform. Modern Linguistics 13:06 ► pp. 588 ff.
Abdi Tabari, Mahmoud & Julia Goetze
2024. Exploring the impacts of task complexity, anxiety, and self‐efficacy on L2 written production: Unraveling individual differences in TBLT. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 34:4 ► pp. 1533 ff.
Abdi Tabari, Mahmoud, Phil Hiver & Reza Norouzian
2024. Interactions between task complexity, task repetition, and task motivation in L2 writing. Language Teaching Research
Abdi Tabari, Mahmoud, Gholam Hassan Khajavy & Julia Goetze
2024. Mapping the interactions between task sequencing, anxiety, and enjoyment in L2 writing development. Journal of Second Language Writing 65 ► pp. 101116 ff.
Abdi Tabari, Mahmoud, Jongbong Lee & Yizhou Wang
2024. Capturing linguistic features of writing in two genres over time. Reading and Writing 37:3 ► pp. 787 ff.
Abe, Mariko, Yuichiro Kobayashi & Yusuke Kondo
2024. Capturing chronological variation in L2 speech through lexical measurements and regression analysis. Applied Corpus Linguistics 4:3 ► pp. 100105 ff.
Agmon, Galit, Sameer Pradhan, Sharon Ash, Naomi Nevler, Mark Liberman, Murray Grossman & Sunghye Cho
2024. Automated Measures of Syntactic Complexity in Natural Speech Production: Older and Younger Adults as a Case Study. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 67:2 ► pp. 545 ff.
Alzahrani, Alaa & Lawrence Jun Zhang
2024. Utility of Kolmogorov complexity measures: Analysis of L2 groups and L1 backgrounds. PLOS ONE 19:4 ► pp. e0301806 ff.
Azpilicueta-Martínez, Raúl
2024. Exposure or age? The effect of additional CLIL instruction on young learners’ grammatical complexity while performing an oral task. Language Teaching Research
Bao, Gui
2024. Differential effects of EFL proficiency and mode on noun phrase use. System 121 ► pp. 103244 ff.
Barkaoui, Khaled
2024. Exploring the effects of task difficulty and learner variables on performance on picture description writing tasks. Assessing Writing 60 ► pp. 100827 ff.
Bi, Peng & Yujun Liu
2024. Effects of EMI on Learners’ Linguistic Development. In Researching English Medium Instruction, ► pp. 150 ff.
Biber, Douglas, Tove Larsson & Gregory R. Hancock
2024. The linguistic organization of grammatical text complexity: comparing the empirical adequacy of theory-based models. Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory 20:2 ► pp. 347 ff.
Cai, Huiying & Xun Yan
2024. Examining the direct and indirect impacts of verbatim source use on linguistic complexity in integrated argumentative writing assessment. Assessing Writing 61 ► pp. 100868 ff.
Chang, Peichin, Pin-Ju Chen & Li-Ling Lai
2024. Recursive editing with Google Translate: the impact on writing and error correction. Computer Assisted Language Learning 37:7 ► pp. 2116 ff.
Chen, Jiaxin, Dechao Li & Kanglong Liu
2024. Unraveling cognitive constraints in constrained languages: a comparative study of syntactic complexity in translated, EFL, and native varieties. Language Sciences 102 ► pp. 101612 ff.
2024. Online attention versus knowledge utilization: Exploring how linguistic features of scientific papers influence knowledge diffusion. Information Processing & Management 61:3 ► pp. 103691 ff.
Chen, Xinying & Miroslav Kubát
2024. Quantifying Syntactic Complexity in Czech Texts: An Analysis of Mean Dependency Distance and Average Sentence Length Across Genres. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics 31:3 ► pp. 260 ff.
Cong, Yan
2024. AI Language Models: An Opportunity to Enhance Language Learning. Informatics 11:3 ► pp. 49 ff.
Cong, Yan
2025. Second language learning of degree expressions: A computational approach. Natural Language Processing 31:5 ► pp. 1187 ff.
Cong, Yan
2025. Demystifying large language models in second language development research. Computer Speech & Language 89 ► pp. 101700 ff.
2024. Linguistic factors affecting L1 language evaluation in argumentative essays of students aged 16 to 18 attending secondary education in Greece. Assessing Writing 60 ► pp. 100844 ff.
Estaji, Masoomeh & Arya Ghoddousi
2024. Illuminating the Impacts of Contextual Diversity on L2 Writing Proficiency: A Corpus-Based Analysis in the Measures of Linguistic Complexity. European Journal of Applied Linguistics 12:2 ► pp. 437 ff.
Fan, Ning & Yingying Ma
2024. Effects of Planning Conditions on L2 Writing in Relation to Task Complexity. Sage Open 14:4
Fogal, Gary G.
2024. Raising learner awareness of L2 writing spaces: supporting researchers, teachers, and learners through system mapping. Language Awareness 33:3 ► pp. 528 ff.
Gokturk, Nazlinur & Aysel Saricaoglu
2024. Examining teacher-written conference abstracts: Rhetorical functions and syntactic complexity features. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 72 ► pp. 101454 ff.
Hsiao, Yaling, Nicola J. Dawson, Nilanjana Banerji & Kate Nation
2024. A corpus-based developmental investigation of linguistic complexity in children's writing. Applied Corpus Linguistics 4:1 ► pp. 100084 ff.
Huang, Zhiyun & Zhanhao Jiang
2024. Text mining of syntactic complexity in L2 writing: an LDA topic modeling approach. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching
Imsa-ard, Pariwat & Jessie S. Barrot
2024. Combining multimodal technology-mediated and peer feedback: effects on second language (L2) learners’ complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) in writing. Computer Assisted Language Learning► pp. 1 ff.
Jung, Boo Kyung & Gyu-Ho Shin
2024. L2 textbook input and L2 written production: a case of Korean locative postposition–verb construction. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching 62:2 ► pp. 539 ff.
Jung, YeonJoo
2024. Analyzing Sentiment and Syntactic Complexity in L2 Writing: A Computational Approach. Modern English Education 25:0 ► pp. 143 ff.
Kang, Mengchao, Tan Jin, Xiaofei Lu & Haomin Zhang
2024. Exploring the differences in syntactic complexity between lay summaries and abstracts: A case study of The New England Journal of Medicine. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 72 ► pp. 101444 ff.
Kessler, Matt, Caitlin Cornell, J. Elliott Casal & Detong Xia
2024. Writing a successful applied linguistics conference abstract: The relationship between stylistic and linguistic features and raters’ evaluations. Journal of English for Academic Purposes 72 ► pp. 101450 ff.
Khushik, Ghulam Abbas
2024. Is the variation in syntactic complexity features observed in argumentative essays produced by B1 level EFL learners in Finland and Pakistan attributable exclusively to their L1?. Assessing Writing 60 ► pp. 100839 ff.
Khushik, Ghulam Abbas
2025. Examining the Effects of Alternate Prompts on Syntactic Complexity in EFL learners’ Essays at CEFR Levels A1, A2, and B1. Language Assessment Quarterly 22:3 ► pp. 283 ff.
Khushik, Ghulam Abbas
2025. A False Dichotomy: Contextual Factors and EFL Learners’ Syntax. Reading & Writing Quarterly► pp. 1 ff.
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