Cover not available

In:Sociolinguistic Approaches to Arabic and Spanish in Contact
Edited by Farah Ali, Carol Ready and Sherez Mohamed
[Issues in Hispanic and Lusophone Linguistics 44] 2025
► pp. 143–166

Get fulltext from our e-platform
JBE logo with link
PDF logo with download linkDownload Book PDF
EPUB logo with download linkDownload Book EPUB
authorization required

Chapter 8
The language attitudes of Moroccan Berbers and Catalan speakers

A comparative study on language use and identity formation

 | University of Macedonia
 | Hellenic Open University
Published online: 17 July 2025
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/ihll.44.08kou
Abstract
The present bibliographic study comparatively examines the formation of language attitudes and the indexing of identities through language variation among the Berbers of Morocco and the Catalan speakers of Spain. For the purpose of our comparative approach, several factors including social, political, demographic and cultural variables, have been taken into account. The study demonstrates that despite some progress, negative attitudes, bias and linguistic competition still exist in both speech communities, albeit expressed differently and to a different extent in each case, reflecting the trauma of the past in tandem with the sociopolitical realities of the present.
Article outline
  • Introduction
  • The sociolinguistic theoretical context
    • Language attitudes
    • Language variation
  • Language standardization and the construction of ethnolinguistic ‘minorities’ in Morocco and Spain: The Berbers and the Catalans in retrospect
    • Arabization in Morocco
    • Castilianization in Catalonia
    • The status of Berbers and Catalans today
  • Language contact and the formation of attitudes in Morocco and Catalonia
    • The language attitudes of the Berbers
    • The attitudes of Moroccans towards Tamazight
    • Language attitudes and covert prestige dynamics
    • Language attitudes in Catalonia from one generation to another
    • The immigrant factor
    • Language variation, language loyalty and identity politics
  • Concluding comparisons
  • Notes
  • References
References (116)
References
Abdullah, R. (2018). Language attitudes among urban Moroccan youth following recent developments in language policy and linguistic landscape. [Unpublished master’s thesis]. The American University in Cairo.
Aissati, A. E., Karsmakers, S., & Kurvers, J. (2011). ‘We are all beginners’: Amazigh in language policy and educational practice in Morocco. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 41(2), 211–227. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Alalou, A. (2006). Language and ideology in the Maghreb: Francophonie and other languages. The French Review, 80(2), 408–421.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Alarcón, A., & Parella, R., S. (2013). Linguistic integration of the descendants of foreign immigrants in Catalonia. Migraciones internacionales, 7(1), 101–130.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Albirini, A. (2016). Modern Arabic sociolinguistics Diglossia, variation, codeswitching, attitudes and identity. Routledge. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Albirini, A., Benmamoun, E., & Chakrani, B. (2012). Gender and number agreement in the oral production of Arabic heritage speakers. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 16(01), 1–18. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ali, F. (2022a). Multilingualism and gendered immigrant identity: Perspectives from Catalonia. Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2022b). Putting policy into practice: The problematisation of Catalan language planning and ideologies in media discourse. Revista de Llengua i Dret, 78, 194–213.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Al-Jarf, R. (2016). Arab preference for foreign words over Arabic equivalents. Alatoo Academic Studies, 1(1), 158–162.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Al-Saleem, B. I. T. (2011). Language and identity in social networking sites. International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 1(19), 197–202Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Auer, P. (2005). Europe’s sociolinguistic unity, or: A typology of European dialect/standard constellations. In N. Delbecque, J. van der Auwera, & D. Geeraerts (Eds.), Perspectives on variation: Sociolinguistic, historical, comparative (pp. 7–42). De Gruyter Mouton. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Baker, C. (1992). Attitudes and languages. Multilingual Matters.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Barrio, A., & Field, B. N. (2018). The push for independence in Catalonia. Nature Human Behaviour, 2(10), 713–715. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bell, A. (1992). Hit and miss: Referee design in the dialects of New Zealand television advertisements. Language and Communication 12, 327–340.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bentahila, A. (1983). Motivations for code-switching among Arabic-French bilinguals in Morocco. Language & Communication, 3(3), 233–243. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bentahila, A., & Davies, E. E. (1989). On mother and other tongues: The notion of possession of a language. Lingua, 78(1), 155–181.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1992). Convergence and divergence — Two cases of language shift in Morocco. In W. Fase, K. Jaspaert & S. Kroon (Eds.), Maintenance and Loss of Minority Languages (pp. 197–210). John Benjamins Publishing Company. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bernaus, M., Moore, E., & Cordeiro, A. (2007). Affective factors influencing plurilingual students’ acquisition of Catalan in a Catalan — Spanish bilingual context. The Modern Language Journal, 9(2), 235–246. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Green, D. W., & Gollan, T. H. (2009). Bilingual minds. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 10(3), 89–129. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Block, A. (2019, September 23). Respecting identity: Amazigh versus Berber. Society for Linguistic Anthropology. [URL]Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Buckner, E. (2006). Language drama in Morocco: Another perspective on the problems and prospects of teaching Tamazight. The Journal of North African Studies, 11(4), 421–433. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Byrne, S. (2019). Language attitudes, linguistic authority and independence in 21st century Catalonia. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 41(8), 1–16.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cargile, A. C., Giles, H., Ryan, E. B., & Bradac, J. J. (1994). Language attitudes as a social process: A conceptual model and new directions. Language & Communication, 14(3), 211–236. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Centre d’Estudis d’Opinió. (2021, May 28). Baròmetre. political context survey. 2021- Press report. [URL]
Cetrà, D., Casanas-Adam, E., & Tàrrega, M. (2018). The 2017 Catalan independence referendum: A symposium. Scottish affairs, 27(1), 126–143. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chakrani, B. (2013). The impact of the ideology of modernity on language attitudes in Morocco. The Journal of North African Studies, 18(3), 431–442. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chakrani, B., & Huang, J. L. (2012). The work of ideology: examining class, language use, and attitudes among Moroccan university students. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 17(1), 1–14. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chambers, J. K., Trudgill, P. & Schilling-Estes. N. (2002). The handbook of language variation and change. Blackwell Publishing.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
CIA, The World Factbook. (2022, January 14). Explore all countries-Morocco. [URL]
Conversi, D. (2002). The smooth transition: Spain’s 1978 constitution and the nationalities question. National Identities, 4(3), 223–244. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Coupland, N. (2007). Style: Language Variation and Identity. Cambridge University press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Crawford, D. (2002). Morocco’s’ Invisible Imazighen. Journal of North African Studies 7(1), 53–70. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Departament d’Estadistica Ajuntament de Barcelona. (2011). Coneixement del català: Evolució de les caracteristiques de la població de Barcelona. [Knowledge of Catalan in Barcelona].
Díaz, E. M. (2009). Las motivaciones del cambio de código: del Español a la lengua Catalana. Revista Electrónica de Estudios Filológicos, 1(18), 1–19Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dua, H. R. (1986). Language use, attitudes and identity among linguistic minorities (a case study of Dakkhini Urdu speakers in Mysore). Central Institute of Indian Languages.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Eckert, P., & Rickford, R. J. (2002). Introduction. In P. Eckert & J. R. Rickford (Eds.), Style and Sociolinguistic Variation (pp. 1–18). Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ennaji, M. (1991). Multilingualism in the Maghreb. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 87(1), 7–25. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Errihani, M. (2008). Language attitudes and language use in Morocco: effects of attitudes on “Berber language policy”. The Journal of North African Studies, 13(4), 411–428. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Fabregat, C. E. I. (1984). Ethnocentricity and bilingualism in Catalonia: the state and bilingualism. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 1984(47), 43–57. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ferguson, A. (1959). Diglossia. Word, 15(1), 325–340. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Fishman, J. A. (1994). Critiques of language planning: A minority languages perspective. Journal of Multilingual & Multicultural Development, 15(2–3), 91–99. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Garrett, P. (2007). Language attitudes. In C. Llamas, L. Mullany, & P. Stockwell (Eds.), The Routledge companion to Sociolinguistics (pp. 116–121). Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Garrett, P., Coupland, N., & Williams, A. (2003). Investigating language attitudes: Social meanings of dialect, ethnicity and performance. University Of Wales Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Gimeno-Menéndez, F., & Gómez-Molina, J. R. (2007). Spanish and Catalan in the community of Valencia. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2007(184), 95–107. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
González-Riaño, X. A., Fernández-Costales, A., Lapresta-Rey, C., & Huguet, Á. (2019). Language attitudes towards Spanish and Catalan in autochthonous and immigrant families in Catalonia: Analysing the correlation between student attitudes and their parents. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 22(6), 754–767. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Graybill, A. J. (2019). The status and vitality of Moroccan Tamazight and Darija. [Unpublished master’s thesis]. The University of Arizona.
Hart, M. D. (2000). Tribe and society in rural Morocco. Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hernández-Campoy, J. M. (2008). Overt and covert prestige in Late Middle English. A case study in East Anglia. Folia Linguistica Historica 29, 1–26. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hoffmann, C. (1995). Monolingualism, bilingualism, cultural pluralism and national identity: Twenty years of language planning in contemporary Spain. Current Issues in Language and Society, 2(1), 59–90. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Huguet, À., & Janés, J. (2008). Mother tongue as a determining variable in language attitudes. The case of immigrant Latin American students in Spain. Language and Intercultural Communication, 8(4), 246–260. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hussein, R. F. (1999). Code-Alteration among Arab college students. World Englishes, 18(2), 281–289. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ianos, M.-A., Huguet, Á., Janés, J., & Lapresta, C. (2015). Can language attitudes be improved? A longitudinal study of immigrant students in Catalonia (Spain). International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 20(3), 331–345. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ibrahim, M. (1986). Standard and prestige language: A problem in Arabic sociolinguistics. Anthropological Linguistics 28, 115–126.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Idhssaine, A. (2020). Moroccans’ Attitudes towards Amazigh Language Teaching: Patterns and Perspectives. Applied Linguistics Research Journal, 4(3), 52–64. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Institut d’estadística de Catalunya (Idescat), (2009). Encuesta de usos lingüísticos de la población 2008, Barcelona, Generalitat de Catalunya.
, (2013). Annual indicators. Language uses. First language, language of identification and habitual language. Results.
Jaffe, A. (1993). Obligation, Error and Authenticity: Competing Cultural Principles in the Teaching of Corsican? Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 3(1), 99–114. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jaran, S. A., & Al-Haq, F. A. A. (2015). The use of hybrid terms and expressions in colloquial Arabic among Jordanian college students: A sociolinguistic study. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and Translation, 1(2), 18–27.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Khan, K., & Gallego, B., L. (2021). Racialized trajectories to Catalan higher education: Language, anti-racism and the ‘politics of listening.’ Applied Linguistics, 42(6), 1083–1096. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Labov, W. (1972). The social stratification of (r) in New York City department stores. In W. Labov (Ed.), Sociolinguistic Patterns (pp. 43–54). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Laitin, D. D., Solé, C., & Kalyvas, S. N. (1994). Language and the construction of states: The case of Catalonia in Spain. Politics & Society, 22(1), 5–29. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Landry, R., & Allard, R. (1994). Introduction ethnolinguistic vitality: A viable construct. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 108(1), 5–13. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lapresta-Rey, C., Huguet, Á., & Fernández-Costales, A. (2017). Language attitudes, family language and generational cohort in Catalonia: new contributions from a multivariate analysis. Language and Intercultural Communication, 17(2), 135–149. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lasagabaster, D. (2017). Language learning motivation and language attitudes in multilingual Spain from an international perspective. The Modern Language Journal, 101, 583–596. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Levon, E. (2009). Dimensions of style: Context, politics and motivation in gay Israeli speech. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 13(1), 29–58. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Loutfi, A., & Noamane, A. (2020). On language policy in Morocco. Towards a prestige planning approach. La Revue Marocaine de la Pensée Contemporaine 6, 1–10.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Marley, D. (2004). Language attitudes in Morocco following recent changes in language policy. Language Policy, 3(1), 25–46. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Martínez-Herrera, E., & Miley, T. J. (2010). The constitution and the politics of national identity in Spain. Nations and Nationalism, 16(1), 6–30. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
McFarlane, A. (2013). The Bourbon century. In F. A. Eissa-Barroso & A. V. Varela (Eds.), Early Bourbon Spanish America: politics and society in a forgotten era (1700–1759), (pp. 181–198). Brill. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Miley, T., & Garvía, R. (2019). Conflict in Catalonia: A sociological approximation. Genealogy, 3(56), 1–27. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Miller, H., & Miller, K. (1996). Language policy and identity: The case of Catalonia. International Studies in Sociology of Education, 6(1), 113–128. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Milroy, L., & Milroy, J. (1992). Social network and social class: Toward an integrated sociolinguistic model. Language in Society, 21(1), 1–26. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Muysken, P. (2011). Code-switching. In R. Mesthrie (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of sociolinguistics (pp. 301–314). Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nekula, M. (2021). Language loyalty and language shift in Bohemia in the long 19th century based on the language biography of Friedrich (Bedřich) Smetana. Language & History, 64(2), 92–112. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Newman, M., Trenchs-Parera, M., & Ng, S. (2008). Normalizing bilingualism: The effects of the Catalonian linguistic normalization policy one generation after. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 12(3), 306–333. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nilep, C. (2006). “Code switching” in sociocultural linguistics. Colorado Research in Linguistics, 19(1), 1–22.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pack, S. D. (2010). Tourism and political change in Franco’s Spain. In N. Townson (Ed.), Spain transformed: The late Franco dictatorship, 1959–1975 (pp. 47–66). Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pavlenko, A. (2001). Bilingualism, gender, and ideology. International Journal of Bilingualism, 5(2), 117–151. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pelham, N. (2001, January 2). Moroccan Berbers press for rights. BBC NEWS. [URL]Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pimentel, J. (2000). The Iberian vision: Science and empire in the framework of a universal monarchy, 1500–1800. Osiris, 15(1), 17–30. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Poggeschi, G. (2015). We are Imazighen: The development of Algerian Berber identity in twentieth-century literature and culture. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 39(3), 537–539. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Preston, R. D. (2004). Language with an attitude. In J. K. Chambers, P. Trudgill, & N. Schilling-Estes (Eds.), The handbook of language variation and change (pp. 40–66). Blackwell Publishing. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pujolar, J., & Puigdevall, M. (2015). Linguistic mudes: How to become a new speaker in Catalonia. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2015(231), 167–187. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Quist, P. (2008). Sociolinguistic approaches to multiethnolect: Language variety and stylistic practice. International Journal of Bilingualism 12(1–2), 43–61. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rees, E. L. (1996). Spain’s linguistic normalization laws: The Catalan controversy. Hispania, 79(2), 313–321. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rendon, S. (2005). The Catalan premium: language and employment in Catalonia. Journal of Population Economics, 20(3), 669–686. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ricento, T. (2000). Historical and theoretical perspectives in language policy and planning. Journal of sociolinguistics, 4(2), 196–213. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rickford, J. & M. Price. (2013). Girlz II women: Age-grading, language change and stylistic variation. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 17(1), 143–179. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sadiqi, F. (1995). The language of women in the city of Fès, Morocco. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 112(1), 63–79. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1997). The place of Berber in Morocco. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 123(1), 7–21. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schilling-Estes, N. (2004). Constructing ethnicity in interaction. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 8(1), 163–185. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2013). Investigating stylistic variation. In J. K. Chambers & N. Schilling-Estes (Eds.), The handbook of language variation and change (pp. 327–349). Oxford: Blackwell. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Seoane, L. F., Loredo, X., Monteagudo, H., & Mira, J. (2019). Is the coexistence of Catalan and Spanish possible in Catalonia? Palgrave Communications, 5(1), 1–9. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Shuy, W. R., & Fasold, W. R. (1973). Language attitudes: current trends and prospects. Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Silverstein, P., & Crawford, D. (2004). Amazigh activism and the Moroccan state. Middle East Report, 233 (1), 44–48. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Solé, C. (1981). La integración sociocultural de los inmigrantes en Cataluña, Madrid, Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Suang, L. (2020). Berber. In C. Lucas & S. Manfredi (Eds.), Arabic and contact-induced change (pp. 403–418). Language Science Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Suleiman, Y. (2006). Charting the nation: Arabic and the politics of identity. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 26(1), 125–148. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Thompson, J. B. (1987). Language and Ideology: A Framework for Analysis. The Sociological Review, 35(3), 516–536. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tilmatine, M. (2015). Arabization and linguistic domination: Berber and Arabic in the North of Africa. In C. Stolz (Ed.), Language empires in comparative perspective (pp. 1–16). De Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Trenchs-Parera, M., & Newman, M. (2009). Diversity of language ideologies in Spanish-speaking youth of different origins in Catalonia. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 30(6), 509–524. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Trudgill, P. (1972). Sex, covert prestige and linguistic change in the urban British English of Norwich. Language in Society, 1(2), 179–195. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Vallverdú, F. (1984). A sociolinguistic history of Catalan. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 1984(47), 13–28. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Venema, B., & Mguild, A. (2003). Access to land and Berber ethnicity in the Middle Atlas, Morocco. Middle Eastern Studies, 39(4), 35–53. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Vila-Pujol, M. R. (2007). Sociolinguistics of Spanish in Catalonia. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 2007(184), 59–77. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Webber, J., & Trueta, M. S. (1991). The Catalan language: Progress towards normalisation. Anglo-Catalan Society.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wessel, S. M. (2004). ‛Loyalität’ als geschichtlicher Grundbegriff und Forschungskonzept: Zur Einleitung [‛Loyalty’ as a basic historical term and research concept: An introduction]. In Wessel, S. M. (Ed.), Loyalitäten in der Tschechoslowakischen Republik 1918–1938: Politische, nationale und kulturelle Zugehörigkeiten [Loyalty in the Czechoslovak Republic 1918–1938: Political, National and Cultural Affiliation] (pp. 1-22). Munich: Oldenbourg.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Woolard, K. A. (1985). Language variation and cultural hegemony: Toward an integration of sociolinguistic and social theory. American Ethnologist, 12(4), 738–748. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1991). Linkages of language and ethnic identity: Changes in Barcelona, 1980–1987. In J. R. Dow (Ed.), Focus on language and ethnicity: Essays in honor of Joshua A. Fishman (Vol. 2) (pp. 61–82). John Benjamins Publishing. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1995). Changing forms of codeswitching in Catalan comedy. Catalan Review, 9(2), 223–252. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2009). Linguistic consciousness among adolescents in Catalonia: A case study from the Barcelona urban area in longitudinal perspective. Zeitschrift für Katalanistik — Revista d’Estudis Catalans, 22(2009), 125–150. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Xarxa CRUSCAT (2011). Informe sobre la situació de la llengua catalana. [Report on the situation of the Catalan language].
Xavier Vila, F., Ubalde, J., Bretxa, V., & Comajoan-Colomé, L. (2018). Changes in language use with peers during adolescence: A longitudinal study in Catalonia. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 1–16.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Yagmur, K., & Ehala, M. (2011). Tradition and innovation in the Ethnolinguistic Vitality theory. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 32(2), 101–110. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zouhir, A. (2013). Language situation and conflict in Morocco. In Ọ. Ọ. Orie & K. W. Sanders (Eds.), Selected proceedings of the 43rd annual conference on African linguistics (pp. 271–277). Cascadilla Proceedings Project.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2017). The politics of language and identity in Lebanon and Morocco: Similarities and differences. International Journal of Arabic-English Studies, 17(1), 145–162. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue