In:World Englishes in their Local Multilingual Ecologies
Edited by Peter Siemund, Gardy Stein and Manuela Vida-Mannl
[Hamburg Studies on Linguistic Diversity 9] 2025
► pp. 401–406
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Published online: 24 April 2025
https://doi.org/10.1075/hsld.9.si
https://doi.org/10.1075/hsld.9.si
A
- acrolect 1, 2, 259–260, 263
- additional language 17, 42, 131, 152, 167, 178, 241, 313, 317, 320, 365, 368–370, 378–379, 390
- advertisement 71, 78, 177, 196, 213–214, 216–217, 220–221, 322, 351
- affect 335, 340–341, 345–346, 350, 359
- affinity score 266, 278, 280–282
- African American Vernacular Englishsee English(es)
- agency 12, 335, 359
- alphabetization71
- alpha diversity 291, 298, 302, 309 ; see also gamma diversity
- American Englishsee English(es)
- Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) 152, 278, 281, 283–284
- Anatolia 170, 192–193
- Anglophone Crisis 67–68, 83–84
- Anglophone problemsee Anglophone Crisis
- ANOVAsee Analysis of Variance
- AntConc323
- appraisal 15, 335, 338–341, 352
- appropriation 16, 214, 226
- articles
211, 375–376, 378–379
- definite 371, 375–376, 378
- indefinite 371, 375–378, 379
- Arusha 214, 226, 235, 389
- Asian Englishessee English(es)
- attitudes
68, 70, 146, 197, 208,
282, 312, 335,
359–360
- language 6, 15, 52, 55–56, 64, 68, 79–84, 91–92, 119, 144, 146, 149–150, 177, 179–181, 210, 226, 232, 234–236, 250–253, 258, 260–261, 264, 266–267, 278, 281–282, 284–286, 288, 322, 368–369, 372, 385–387, 389
- speaker 4–5, 13, 17, 157, 159–160, 162, 168, 175, 177, 182, 251, 266–267, 284–285, 319
B
- Bantu languages 17, 25–26, 29, 40, 42–43, 45, 47, 54, 56–58, 209, 211–212, 233
- basilect 78, 263
- bilectalism 167–168, 170–171, 174, 178, 181–182, 184
- bilingual
20–22, 24,
27–28, 43,
82, 124, 134, 170–172, 202, 213, 220,
225, 339, 392
- conversation34
- education 67, 96, 111–112, 122
- education policy 96, 111–112 ; see also education
- mode 17, 23, 25, 32–33
- profile 143, 161, 163, 389
- users372
- bilingualism 17, 65–68, 146–147, 181–182, 312, 320, 322, 385, 388
- individual 119, 144, 147
- blockade 335–338, 340–345, 347–348, 350–354, 357–359
- borrowing 16, 20, 22, 27–29, 33, 203, 223
- Botswana Englishsee English(es)
- British colony 161, 172, 262, 292, 389
- British Englishsee English(es)
- British India 292–293, 296
C
- Cameroon Englishsee English(es)
- Cameroon Pidgin Englishsee English(es)
- capital145
- communicative 263, 286
- economic96
- linguistic323
- social264
- symbolic162
- catchment areas 215, 302, 304
- census
44, 48–49, 69, 96, 119,
146, 177, 180,
261, 292, 295,
297–300, 304,
307, 320, 367,
390
- data 15, 93, 97, 291, 298, 300, 307, 310–313
- China 3, 14, 117, 120, 133, 143, 145, 148–149, 151, 157, 160–161, 226, 294, 318–319, 321
- class identitysee identity
- code-mixing 6, 20, 212, 214, 264, 339
- code-switching 6, 16, 20–25, 31, 33–34, 50, 105, 150, 176, 203, 264, 339, 341, 392
- colloquial 32, 79, 120, 125, 132, 136–137, 245, 248, 331, 393
- colonialism 21, 176, 178
- colonization 118, 178, 391
- commodification
16, 245–246, 248
- of language 232, 234–235, 249, 252
- communities
- African46
- bilingual134
- creole263
- Cypriot 170–172, 181, 183–184
- diaspora43
- ELF379
- expatriate180
- hunter-gatherer 44, 57–58
- immigrant385
- linguistic 58, 304
- multilingual390
- of practice 286, 369–370
- speech 2–3, 5, 160, 169
- contact-induced variation263
- corpus
15, 32, 51, 77, 259,
341, 390
- GloWbE33
- ICE 17, 259
- multimodal 335, 340, 386
- SPOKE 323, 325–330
- TASE 317, 323, 325–330, 386
- translingual 336, 387
- correlations 15, 30, 261, 268, 281–282, 284, 305, 322, 360, 387
- cosmopolitan 176, 217, 226–227
- COVID-19 42, 93, 98–100, 107–108, 372–373
- cram schools 321–322
- creole 21, 76–77, 263, 285, 295, 307, 313
D
- Dar es Salaam 210, 213, 217–218, 221, 226, 250, 389
- decolonization 80, 172, 292
- dialect
22, 52, 97, 112, 146,
149–150, 158–159, 162, 196, 312, 339, 366
- bidialectal181
- Chinese 15, 148
- Cypriot 166–167, 169–170, 177, 180–181, 184
- in India 310, 312
- levelling264
- of Arabic 335, 341, 345, 356, 360, 386
- of Malay131
- Sinitic 149, 151–156, 159–162, 389–390
- discourse
31, 324
- analysis 351, 359
- marker 32, 250, 324, 327–328, 330–331, 386
- particle 324, 327–328, 330–331, 386
- discourse-pragmatic like 317–318, 322–323, 325, 328, 386 ; see also quotative like
- diversity index 15, 169, 298–299, 309–310
- domain
71–72, 92–93, 97, 137,
258, 260, 281
- official 42, 70, 177, 231–232
- of use 13, 50, 55, 64, 112, 156, 166, 168–169, 174, 176, 180, 209, 225, 250, 312–313, 392
- private 4, 15, 72, 161, 176, 183
- professional 133, 201, 264–265
- public 4, 40–42, 58, 73, 146, 156, 175, 180, 182–183, 191, 197, 208, 252
- social 133, 155, 200
- dominance patterns 258–259, 285
- Dominant Language Constellations 5–6, 17, 144, 147, 161, 262–263
- dominant vernacularssee vernacular
- donor language 22, 209
- Dubai 143–144, 147–150, 161, 163
- Dynamic Model 1, 21, 74
E
- East Asia 148, 291–292, 322–323, 331
- ecological
- approach 117–118, 174, 182, 388
- factor 116, 392
- perspective 144–145
- system 118, 144
- ecology
13, 15–16, 118, 145, 212,
263, 291, 298,
302, 309, 359
- language 3–7, 40–41, 43, 49, 92, 98, 109, 116–119, 130, 137–138, 144–147, 149, 161–162, 169, 173–175, 179, 184, 192, 196, 211, 231–232, 241–242, 258–259, 313, 335, 387–389, 391, 393
- linguistic 12, 17–18, 64, 79, 91, 118–119, 144, 156, 162, 166–169, 175, 178, 181–182, 184, 190, 200–201, 225, 259–264, 291–292, 294, 297–299, 309–313, 318, 364, 392
- macro 208–209, 214
- micro 214–215, 259
- multilingual 1–6, 18, 22, 64, 68–69, 76, 78–79, 84, 91–94, 96–97, 109, 111–112, 137, 145, 169, 180, 231–232, 236, 241, 252–253, 317, 365, 368, 377, 380
- translanguaged 335, 360, 386
- economy
41, 234, 259–261, 291, 337, 347, 351,
368, 378
- global 73, 319
- education
- policies 50, 65, 96, 111–119, 126, 138, 145, 392
- system 70–71, 80, 82, 121–122, 124, 128–129, 137, 172, 200, 209, 263, 305, 317–322, 386
- EFLsee English as a foreign language
- ELFsee English as a lingua franca
- elite 1, 40, 42–43, 51, 58, 305, 391
- EMIsee English-medium instruction
- emotion 15, 74, 157, 159–161, 340, 390
- emotional stance 335, 341, 359
- endonormative stabilizationsee stabilization
- English as a foreign language 183, 251, 253, 369
- English as a global language 160, 162–163, 259, 369, 371, 384
- English as a lingua franca
250, 253, 291, 331, 364,
370–372, 374–376, 378–380
- multilingua franca 231, 243, 252, 389–390
- English as a Second Language183
- English(es)
- African American Vernacular 21, 354, 356, 358–359
- American 73, 263–264, 266–267, 272, 275, 278, 280–282, 285–286, 324, 330, 354
- Asian 2, 322, 331
- Botswana 51–52, 58
- British 51–52, 73–75, 77, 180, 262, 263–264, 266–267, 272, 275, 278, 280–282, 285–286
- Cameroon 66, 73–75, 77, 84
- Cameroon Pidgin 16, 18, 64, 69, 71–73, 71, 73, 75–78, 80–81, 84
- contact variety of 125, 393
- Expanding Circle331
- grassroots 3, 208, 235–236, 253, 389
- Gulf147
- Hindi24
- Hong Kong24
- in education91
- Irish22
- Korean 317, 323–325, 330–331
- Malaysian 122, 132
- Namibian 24, 51
- Nigerian Pidgin 259, 263–264, 266–267, 270–272, 275, 278, 280–282, 284–288
- Nigerian Standard 259–260, 262–264, 266–267, 270–272, 274–275, 278, 280–282, 284–288
- Outer Circle 74, 234, 331
- Philippine 2, 92
- Singapore 22, 24, 122, 146
- Singlish 24, 119, 146, 161
- South African 16, 51
- Swahinglish212
- Taiwanese 317–318, 322–324, 330–331, 386
- Tamil24
- Tanzanian 210–211, 217, 219, 234, 252–253
- Zanzibari 232, 250, 252–253, 389–390
- English for Specific Purposes369
- English-medium
- education 129, 320
- instruction 64, 122, 191, 202–203, 391–392; see also medium of instruction
- school 43, 50, 82, 122, 125, 198, 203–204
- entrepreneurial orientation 258, 261, 264–265, 267, 274–276, 281
- entrepreneurial success 258, 260, 264
- ESLsee English as a Second Language
- ESPsee English for Specific Purposes
- ethnic
6, 74, 118–119, 123, 125, 145, 176,
182, 184, 192,
260–262, 281,
284–285, 337
- community language 210, 212, 214
- group 41, 116–117, 130–131, 138, 146, 166–167, 265–266, 269, 285–287, 311, 348, 366–367, 385, 392
- identity 33, 43, 79, 120, 127, 134–135, 137, 266, 311–312
- inter-ethnic 53, 72
- minority 194, 262, 367
- ethnography 112, 258
- exonormative stabilizationsee stabilization
- Expanding Circle Englishessee English(es)
F
- Facebook 14, 16, 91, 93–94, 97–107, 109–111
- first languagesee language
- foreign language 143, 148–150, 152, 154–155, 161–162, 168, 190, 197, 234, 240–241, 243, 365, 368, 370, 388
- functional
- category 324–327
- language197
- multilingualism 152, 389
- range 317, 324
- roles 6, 12, 233, 258
- valuesee value
G
- gamma diversity 291, 298, 300, 302, 309 ; see also alpha diversity
- Global Englishsee English as a global language
- globalization 5, 21–22, 64, 121, 123, 148, 161, 176, 198, 208–210, 231–234, 262, 320, 389, 391
- government communications 16, 91, 93, 95, 97–98, 105, 109–112, 392
- grassroots Englishessee English(es)
- greeting 16, 99, 101–103, 231–232, 235–236, 243–250, 252
- Gulf Englishsee English(es)
H
- hashtag 101, 104, 340–341, 345–346, 353
- heritage languagesee language
- hero 341–342, 351–354, 356–360
- Hindi Englishsee English(es)
- Hinglishsee Hindi English
- Hong Kong Englishsee English(es)
- hospitality 238, 378
- Human Development Index 299–300, 305
- H variety 177, 184
- hybrid language practices339
I
- iconic expressions245
- identity
- African 32, 72, 387
- class 258, 266, 286
- creation 21, 318
- cultural 33, 134–135, 391
- ethnic 33, 79, 120, 127, 134, 137, 202, 204, 266, 285, 311
- local96
- marker 161, 183, 390
- national 53, 119, 121–122, 125, 136, 158, 171, 177, 180, 182–183, 319, 358, 393
- personal 151, 158–159
- preferred269
- projection21
- religious269
- social 260, 266, 286
- sociolinguistic 32, 68, 80–83, 145–146, 177, 202, 251, 285, 322
- speaker5
- ideology 4, 28, 67, 112, 144–145, 158, 260, 264, 286, 318, 331
- indigenous languagesee language
- infinitive constructions 371, 375–376, 378
- inscription 213, 218, 222–225, 227
- interference 74, 263
- interlanguaging 264, 392
- internationalization 15, 124, 138, 144, 147, 158, 210
- interpersonal339
- interview
- ethnographic 236, 390
- qualitative 15, 200, 323, 372
- semi-structured 14, 143, 150, 372
- sociolinguistic 14, 371–378
- telephone 268, 287
- Irish Englishsee English(es)
- isogloss259
J
- Japanization319
K
- Kachruvian circles 234, 370
- Kamtoksee Cameroon Pidgin English
- koiné 170, 179, 285
- Konglishsee Hong Kong English
- Korea331 ; see also South Korea
- Korean Englishsee English(es)
L
- L1see language, first
- L1 transfer379
- L2see language, second
- L3see language, third
- language
- dominance 271, 274–275, 278, 280–282, 284–285, 287–288
- endangerment 55, 57
- first 43, 50, 54–55, 58, 69, 120, 167, 211–213, 260, 263, 271, 278, 294, 298–300, 302, 304–309, 311, 319, 323, 328, 367–370, 372, 374–375, 379, 390–391
- heritage 17, 57, 127, 132–135, 137, 162, 167, 262, 389
- hierarchy 41, 58, 391
- indigenous 12–13, 18, 41–42, 69–72, 78, 80, 84, 116, 118, 120, 125, 132, 134–135, 137, 318, 388
- majority 25, 178, 259, 292, 389
- minority 15, 42, 57, 64, 71, 79, 137, 183, 213, 233, 367
- mixing 127, 133–134
- national 13, 41–42, 46, 49, 53, 55–56, 58, 64–65, 70–71, 75, 78, 90, 96–97, 109–110, 112, 118–119, 121–122, 124–125, 147, 149, 151, 157, 160–162, 168, 201, 212–213, 225–226, 233, 311, 318–319, 321–322, 368, 390–392
- official 16, 41–42, 49, 65–68, 78, 80–81, 83–84, 116–117, 120–121, 147, 156, 166, 175, 178, 182–183, 197, 199, 209, 212, 215, 216, 225, 296, 336, 347, 364, 366–367, 387, 389, 391–392
- planning 203, 322
- policy 16–17, 49–50, 65–66, 68, 70, 84, 93, 95–98, 109–112, 125–126, 145–146, 158, 172, 191, 201, 209, 213, 216, 233–234, 296, 305, 318–319, 321, 391–392
- practice 2, 6, 93, 97–98, 101, 105–107, 109, 110–112, 144, 146, 150, 232, 235–236, 240–241, 250, 252, 339, 389, 392
- proficiency 4–5, 130, 137, 150, 154, 172
- profile 93, 117–119, 123, 126, 131, 134–135, 137–138, 144, 147, 149–150, 152–153, 161–162, 389, 392
- regional, 7, 13, 84, 97, 111–112, 391
- repertoire 6–7, 13, 17, 55–57, 130, 144, 150, 152–153, 172, 236, 260
- replacement57
- second 43, 50, 96, 111, 122, 168, 200, 251, 253, 278, 281, 284, 296, 299, 306–308, 311, 385, 390, 392
- shift 17, 22, 42, 44, 56–57, 302, 312, 318–320
- subsidiary 298–299, 311
- third 43, 125, 202, 274, 278, 296, 299, 305–308, 311–312, 390
- variety 5, 69, 79, 84, 122, 134, 150, 157, 159, 168, 253, 339
- working 146–147, 197, 233–234
- Language Learning Score 279–281, 283
- languages other than English 105, 143, 148, 150, 155, 157, 160–161, 389–390
- leadership 336, 341–342, 348, 351–352, 357–358
- liberalization 124, 137, 209–210
- Likert scale 150, 239
- lingua franca
16, 48–49, 69, 76, 110–112, 158, 175, 209, 319–320, 336, 368, 378
see also English as a lingua franca
- global 167, 183–184
- intranational232
- local 56, 125, 305, 307–309
- national 53, 72, 292, 389
- lingualities 170, 181
- linguistic
- conservatism126
- diversity 15, 94, 112, 169, 259–261, 286, 292, 296, 298–305, 307–309, 311–312, 339, 367, 387, 389–390
- ecosystem145
- landscape 15, 69–70, 162, 169, 181–182, 196, 202, 210–214, 223, 225–226, 241, 245, 385, 390–391
- repertoire 4–6, 17, 125, 134, 138, 147, 179, 202, 240–243, 262, 264–268, 311–313, 339, 365, 372, 390
- resource 6, 15, 145, 339, 379
- Living Standard Score 265, 276–277, 281
- loanword 26–27, 29, 209, 212, 223, 225, 227
- local diversitysee alpha diversity
- Local Government Areas 260–263, 269, 284, 287
- localization 16, 130, 226
- LOTEsee languages other than English
M
- majority languagesee language
- Malaysian Englishsee English(es)
- Manyara region 214–215
- media
- English language 369, 385
- mass 51, 77, 320
- new 21, 51, 58, 210
- print 50, 176
- social 21, 24, 93, 98, 109, 127, 132–133, 150, 212, 331, 336–338, 341, 352, 365, 386
- medium of instruction 42, 50, 57, 96, 111–112, 122–124, 127–129, 137–138, 175, 204, 210, 233, 368, 392 ; see also English medium instruction
- migration 14, 17, 118, 145, 147, 161, 184, 195, 260, 262, 293–295, 389
- minority group 194, 367
- minority languagesee language
- mobility turn21
- mother tongue
96, 146, 191, 199, 202,
239–241, 243,
248, 271, 298–299, 310–311, 391
- education70
- status 78, 84
- Mother-tongue Based Multilingual Education96
- multidialectal 143, 145, 148
- multilingual
- global cities 144–145, 147, 149–150, 161–162, 385
- turn21
- multilingualism
- individual 145–147, 161
- post-colonial African25
- societal 144–148, 183, 389
- multivariate studies276
N
- Namibian Englishsee English(es)
- national languagesee language
- national language policy 49, 96 ; see also language policy
- native English speakers251
- neoliberalism210
- Nigerian Pidgin Englishsee English(es)
- Nigerian Standard Englishsee English(es)
- Nilotic languages 211, 215
- non-parametric test 278, 281
- normalized frequency 325–326
- noun class 26, 28, 43, 212, 214
O
- official languagesee language
- orthographic 221, 223, 227, 239, 372
- Outer Circle Englishessee English(es)
P
- participant observation 231, 232, 236
- Philippine Englishsee English(es)
- Pidgin Englishsee Cameroon Pidgin English, Nigerian Pidgin English
- pidginization 16, 73, 231, 232, 245–246, 252
- Plain Language Bill97
- plurilingualism 148, 259, 389
- popular culture 160, 201, 214, 248, 328, 386
- portrait 337, 342–351
- postcolonial varieties of English 259, 297
- power
65, 112, 162, 173, 194,
203, 319, 391
- colonial 46, 92, 169, 171, 193, 365
- dynamics21
- economic 168, 225
- explanatory 4, 174
- language power scale 17, 40–41, 58
- political 67, 387
- social17
- prestige
1, 15, 21, 28, 51,
56, 75, 84, 162, 167,
169, 183, 208,
210, 212, 259,
318, 346, 391
- covert 18, 77, 81
- overt 18, 77
- pseudo-monolingual318
Q
- questionnaire
14, 82, 126, 143, 150–151, 231, 232, 236, 239, 240,
243, 261, 264–266, 268, 280–281, 287–288, 367,
373, 390
- ethnographic371
- quotative like 324–331, 386 ; see also discourse-pragmatic like
R
- regiolect297
- regional differentiation297
- regional languagesee language
- relative pronoun 371, 375–376, 378–379
- Republic of Cyprus166
- Republic of Northern Cyprus167
- resemiotization 335, 338, 343, 345, 348–351, 360
- Rift Valley 208, 211, 214
- rural areas 48, 57, 69, 127, 180, 214, 217–218, 220, 226–227, 233, 302, 389
S
- sampling bias387
- second languagesee language
- self-assessment 240, 265
- signage
15, 183, 211–214, 216–217, 222, 225–227
- bilingual 213, 223, 348
- bottom-up 211, 213–214, 216, 226
- monolingual176
- multilingual212
- top-down216
- Siliguri corridor293
- Simpson’s D 291, 298–300, 302, 309–310
- Singapore 31, 118–119, 121, 143, 144, 146–150, 161, 163, 321
- Singapore Englishsee English(es)
- Singlishsee English(es)
- slang 245, 339
- small and medium enterprises 258, 263–264, 286, 388
- social
- class 4, 258, 260, 265, 277, 281–283, 285–286, 337, 385
- construction of language91
- milieu 77, 259–260
- personae 236, 247, 249–250, 339
- socioeconomic status 265, 276
- solidarity 24, 40, 146, 162, 259–260, 266, 336–337, 342, 347–348, 350–351
- songs 15, 335, 338, 340–342, 354, 356–360, 386
- sophrosyne 352, 354, 359
- South African Englishsee English(es)
- Southern Cushitic languages211
- South Korea 317, 323, 330
- space
- enclosed 237, 246–247, 249, 252
- multilingual 243, 253
- open 231, 247, 249
- Speak Good English Movement119
- Spoken Korean English corpus 323–330
- stabilization
288, 379
- endonormative259
- exonormative 84, 137, 251, 253, 282
- style 5, 29–30, 34, 74, 360
- stylects 208, 212, 226
- subsidiary languagesee language
- substrate 211, 217, 223
- superdiversity14
- Swahilization 209, 233
- Swahinglishsee English(es)
- symbolic valuesee value
- syntax 31, 52, 223, 227, 297
T
- Taiwanese Englishsee English(es)
- Tamil Englishsee English(es)
- Tanzanian Englishsee English(es)
- Tanzanian languages 209, 211
- third languagesee language
- top-down policy 111, 321, 345, 392 ; see also language policy
- tourist destination 51, 53, 235, 249, 294, 348
- translanguaging 3, 14, 17, 21–22, 33, 125, 134, 335, 338–341, 351–352, 359–360
- translocation 16, 208, 210, 214, 217–218, 220, 226–227, 389
- transnational
- attraction 21, 75
- migration 14, 145, 148, 161, 289
- triglossia 208–209
- trilingualism 13, 181, 298, 312
- tweet 15, 335, 338, 340–342, 352–353, 359, 386
- Twitter 341–342, 346, 352 ; see also tweet
U
- Unguja island 231–232, 236–237, 390
- university students 14, 50, 110, 119, 127, 143–144, 146, 149–152, 154, 161, 385–386, 389
- urbanization 71, 259–262
V
- value
4, 13, 17, 68, 70,
73, 77, 80, 92, 122,
143, 157–162, 168, 177, 191,
234–235, 241,
245, 279–280, 285–286, 340, 353, 356, 390–391
- functional259
- symbolic 159, 260
- variation 4, 15, 27–28, 78, 84, 158, 166, 169, 174, 182, 211, 259, 285, 300, 305, 311, 331, 387 ; see also contact-induced variation
- varietysee language variety
- vernacular
21, 84, 96, 125, 177,
181, 208–209, 285, 317–318, 322, 354, 356,
358–359, 389
- dominant95
- local 180, 184, 319
- vernacularization359
- vertical medium of communication209
W
- WEIRD 3, 384–385
- working languagesee language
Y
- Yugoslavia 364, 366–368
Z
- Zanzibari Englishsee English(es)
