In:Handbook of Pragmatics: 27th Annual Installment
Edited by Mieke Vandenbroucke, Jana Declercq, Frank Brisard and Sigurd D’hondt
[Handbook of Pragmatics 27] 2024
► pp. 101–127
Get fulltext
Indirectness
Available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial (CC BY-NC) 4.0 license.
For any use beyond this license, please contact the publisher at rights@benjamins.nl.
Open Access publication of this chapter was funded through a Transformative Agreement with KU Leuven.
Published online: 31 October 2024
https://doi.org/10.1075/hop.27.ind3
https://doi.org/10.1075/hop.27.ind3
Article outline
- 1.Introduction
- 2.What is indirectness?
- 2.1Binary notions
- 2.1.1Indirectness and non-literalness
- 2.1.2Indirectness and the locutionary/illocutionary distinction
- 2.1.3Indirectness and secondariness
- 2.1.4Conventional indirectness: Binary or categorical?
- 2.2Graded notions
- 2.2.1Standardization
- 2.2.2Degrees of indirectness
- 2.2.3Cross-cultural research on indirectness
- 2.1Binary notions
- 3.The reasons for indirectness
- 4.Experimental evidence on the processing of indirectness
- 4.1Indirectness and secondariness
- 4.2Direct and indirect interpretations of ISA constructions
- 4.3Summary
- 5.Conclusions and future directions
Notes References
References (91)
Abbeduto, Leonard, Laurie Furman, and Betty Davies. 1989. “Identifying
speech acts from contextual and linguistic information.” Language and
Speech 32 (3): 189–203.
Bach, Kent, and Robert M. Harnish. 1979. Linguistic
Communication and Speech Acts. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Bašnáková, Jana, Kirsten Weber, Karl Magnus Petersson, Jos Van Berkum, and Peter Hagoort. 2014. “Beyond
the language given: The neural correlates of inferring speaker meaning.” Cerebral
Cortex 24 (10): 2572–2578.
Bendtz, Katarina, Sarah Ericsson, Josephine Schneider, Julia Borg, Jana Bašnáková, and Julia Uddén. 2022. “Individual
differences in indirect speech act processing found outside the language
network.” Neurobiology of
Language 3 (2): 287–317.
Benzdira, Halima. 2023. Cross-cultural
Realization of the Speech Act of Requests: Case Study of Algerian Ph.D. Students. PhD
dissertation, Manchester Metropolitan University.
Blum-Kulka, Shoshana. 1987. “Indirectness
and politeness in requests: Same or different?” Journal of
Pragmatics 11 (2): 131–146.
Blum-Kulka, Shoshana, Juliane House, and Gabriele Kasper (eds). 1989. Cross-Cultural
Pragmatics: Requests and
Apologies. Norwood: Ablex.
Blum-Kulka, Shoshana, and Elite Olshtain. 1984. “Requests
and apologies: A cross-cultural study of speech act realization patterns
(CCSARP).” Applied
Linguistics 5: 198–212.
Brown, Penelope, and Stephen Levinson. 1987. Politeness:
Some Universals in Language
Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Boux, Isabella P., Konstantina Margiotoudi, Felix R. Dreyer, Rosario Tomasello, and Friedemann Pulvermüller. 2023. “Cognitive
features of indirect speech acts.” Language, Cognition and
Neuroscience 38 (1): 40–64.
Byon, Andrew Sangpil. 2006. “The role of
linguistic indirectness and honorifics in achieving linguistic politeness in Korean
requests.” Journal of Politeness
Research 2 (2): 247–276.
Chen, Xi, and Jiayi Wang. 2021. “First
order and second order indirectness in Korean and Chinese.” Journal of
Pragmatics 178: 315–328.
Coulson, Seana, and Christopher Lovett. 2010. “Comprehension
of non-conventional indirect requests: An event-related brain potential study.” Italian
Journal of
Linguistics 22 (1): 107–24.
Culpeper, Jonathan. 2011. Impoliteness:
Using Language to Cause
Offence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
De Geer, Boel, and Tiia Tulviste. 2002. “Behaviour
regulation in the family context in Estonia and
Sweden.” Pragmatics 12(3): 329–346.
Decock, Sofie, and llse Depraetere. 2018. “(In)directness
and complaints: A reassessment.” Journal of
Pragmatics 132: 33–46.
Egorova, Natalia, Friedemann Pulvermuller, and Yury Shtyrov. 2014. “Neural
dynamics of speech act comprehension: An MEG study of naming and requesting.” Brain
Topography 27 (3): 375–392.
Ervin-Tripp, Susan. 1976. “Is
Sybil there? the structure of some American English directives.” Language in
Society. 5: 25–66.
Feng, Wangshu, Hongbo Yu, and Xiaolin Zhou. 2021. “Understanding
particularized and generalized conversational implicatures: Is theory-of-mind
necessary?” Brain and
Language 212: 104878.
Gibbs, Raymond W. 1979. “Contextual effects in
understanding indirect requests.” Discourse
Processes 2: 1–10.
Grice, Herbert P. 1975. “Logic and
Conversation.” In Syntax and Semantics, Vol. 3: Speech
Acts, ed. by Peter Cole and Jerry L. Morgan, 41–58. New York: Academic Press.
Hidalgo-Downing, Laura, Raquel Hidalgo-Downing, and Angela Downing. 2014. “Strategies
of (in)directness in Spanish speakers’ production of complaints and disagreements in English and
Spanish.” In The Functional Perspective on Language and
Discourse: Applications and Implications, ed. by María Angeles Gómez González, Francisco José Ruiz de Mendoza Ibáñez, Francisco Gonzálvez García, and Angela Downing Rothwell, 261–284. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Holtgraves, Thomas, and Caleb Robinson. 2020. “Emoji
can facilitate recognition of conveyed indirect meaning.” PloS
one 15(4): e0232361.
House, Juliane, and Gabriele Kasper. 1981. “Politeness
markers in English and German.” In Conversational
Routine, ed. by Florian Coulmas, 157–185. The Hague: Mouton.
Kerkam, Zainab M. 2015. A comparison of Arabic and
English Directness and Indirectness: Cross-Cultural Politeness. PhD
dissertation, Sheffield Hallam University.
Kiesling, Scott F., and Elka Gosh Johnson. 2010. “Four
forms of interactional indirection.” Journal of
Pragmatics 42 (2): 292–306.
Kissine, Mikhail. 2008. “Locutionary,
illocutionary, perlocutionary.” Language and Linguistics
Compass 2 (6): 1189–1202.
Kulbayeva, Aisulu. 2020. “Balancing
power and solidarity through indirectness: A case study of Russian and Kazakh meeting
chairs.” Journal of Politeness
Research 16 (2): 159–191.
Larina, Tatiana. 2008. “Directness,
imposition and politeness in English and Russian.” Cambridge ESOL: Research
Notes 33: 33–38.
Le Pair, Rob. 2005. “Politeness
in The Netherlands: Indirect requests.” In Politeness in
Europe, ed. by Leo Hickey, and Miranda Stewart, 66–81. Bristol, Blue Ridge Summit: Multilingual Matters.
Lee, James J., and Steven Pinker. 2010. “Rationales
for indirect speech: The theory of the strategic speaker.” Psychological
Review 117 (3): 785–807.
Lempert, Michael. 2012. “Indirectness.” In The
Handbook of Intercultural Discourse and Communication, ed. by Christina Bratt Paulston, Scott F. Kiesling, and Elizabeth S. Rangel, 180–204. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons.
Lwanga-Lumu, Joy Christine. 1999. “Politeness and
indirectness revisited.” South African Journal of African
Languages 19 (2): 83–92.
Manno, Giuseppe. 2002. “La
politesse et l’indirection: Un essai de synthèse.” Langage &
Société 100 (2): 5–47.
Márquez Reiter, Rosina. 2002. “A
contrastive study of conventional indirectness in Spanish: Evidence from Peninsular and Uruguayan
Spanish.” Pragmatics 12 (2): 135–151.
Márquez Reiter, Rosina, Isobel Rainey, and Fulcher, Glenn. 2005. “A
comparative study of certainty and conventional indirectness: Evidence from British English and Peninsular
Spanish.” Applied
linguistics 26 (1): 1–31.
Marsily, Aurélie. 2018. “Directness
vs. indirectness: A contrastive analysis of pragmatic equivalence in Spanish and French request
formulations.” Languages in
Contrast 18 (1): 122–144.
Marti, Leyla. 2006. “Indirectness
and politeness in Turkish–German bilingual and Turkish monolingual requests.” Journal of
Pragmatics 38 (11): 1836–1869.
Meibauer, Jörg. 2019. “What
is an indirect speech act?” Pragmatics and
Cognition 26 (1): 61–84.
Morgan, Jerry L. 1978. “Two types of convention
in indirect speech acts.” In Syntax and Semantics. Vol 9,
Pragmatics, ed. by Peter Cole, 261–280. New York: Academic Press.
Ngor-To Yeung, Lorrita. 2000. “The
question of Chinese indirectness: A comparison of Chinese and English participative decision-making
discourse.” Multilingua 19 (3): 221–264.
Ogiermann, Eva. 2009. “Politeness
and in-directness across cultures: A comparison of English, German, Polish and Russian
requests.” Journal of Politeness
Research 5: 189–216.
Panther, Klaus-Uwe, and Linda Thornburg. 1998. “A
cognitive approach to inferencing in conversation.” Journal of
Pragmatics 30 (6): 755–769.
Pinker, Steven. 2011. “Indirect
speech, politeness, deniability, and relationship negotiation: Comment on Marina Terkourafi’s “The puzzle of indirect
speech”. Journal of
Pragmatics 43 (11): 2866–2868.
Pinker, Steven, Martin A. Nowak, and James J. Lee. 2008. “The
logic of indirect
speech.” PNAS 105 (3): 833–838.
Piquado, Tepring, Derek Isaacowitz, and Arthur Wingfield. 2010. “Pupillometry
as a measure of cognitive effort in younger and older
adults.” Psychophysiology 47 (3): 560–569.
Pizziconi, Barbara. 2009. “Stereotyping
communicative styles in and out of the language and culture classroom: Japanese indirectness, ambiguity and
vagueness.” In Pragmatics Applied to Language Teaching and
Learning, ed. by Gomez Moron, Reyes, Manuel Padilla Cruz, Lucia Fernandez Amaya, and Maria De la O Hernandez Lopez, 221–254. Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Recanati, François. 1987. Meaning
and Force: The Pragmatics of Performative
Utterances. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rodriguez, Andrea. 2022. “Complaining.” Handbook
of
Pragmatics Online 25: 66–90.
Ruytenbeek, Nicolas. 2019. “Lexical
and morpho-syntactic modification of student requests: An empirical contribution to the study of im/politeness in French
e-mail speech
acts.” Lexique 24: 29–47.
. 2020. “Do
indirect requests communicate politeness? An experimental study of conventionalized indirect requests in French email
communication.” Journal of Politeness
Research 16 (1): 111–142.
. 2023. “Directives
(with a special emphasis on requests).” In Handbook of
Pragmatics Online 26: 67–93.
Ruytenbeek, Nicolas, Ekaterina Ostashchenko, and Mikhail Kissine. 2017. “Indirect
request processing, sentence-types and illocutionary forces.” Journal of
Pragmatics 119: 46–62.
Ruzickova, Elena. 2007. “Strong
and mild requestive hints and positive-face redress in Cuban Spanish.” Journal of
Pragmatics 39 (6): 1170–1202.
Rygg, Kristin. 2012. “Direct
and indirect communicative styles: A study in sociopragmatics and intercultural communication based on interview
discourse with Norwegian and Japanese business executives.” PhD
dissertation, University of Bergen.
Schouten, Barbara C. 2007. “Self-construals and
conversational indirectness: A Dutch perspective”. International Journal of Intercultural
Relations 31 (3): 293–297.
Searle, John R. 1969. Speech Acts: An Essay in the
Philosophy of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1975. “Indirect speech
acts.” In Syntax and Semantics, vol. 3: Speech
Acts, ed. by Peter Cole and Jerry L. Morgan, 59–82. New York: Academic Press.
1979. Expression and Meaning: Studies
in the Theory of Speech Acts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Searle, John R., and Daniel Vanderveken. 1985. Foundations
of Illocutionary Logic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Shapiro, Amy M., and Gregory Murphy. 1993. “Can
you answer a question for me? Processing indirect speech acts.” Journal of Memory and
Language 32 (2): 211–229.
Shibata, Midori, Jun-Ichi Abe, Hiroaki Itoh, Koji Shimada, and Satoshi Umeda. 2011. “Neural
processing associated with comprehension of an indirect reply during a scenario reading
task.” Neuropsychologia 49 (13): 3542–3550.
Sifianou, Maria. 1993. “Off-record
indirectness and the notion of
imposition”. Multilingua 12 (1): 69–80.
Spees, Hiroko. 1994. “A
cross-cultural study of indirectness.” Issues in Applied
Linguistics 5(2): 231–253.
Tannen, Deborah. 1981. “Indirectness
in discourse: Ethnicity as conversational style.” Discourse
Processes 4 (3): 221–238.
. 2014. “The
importance of being indirect.” Belgian Journal of
Linguistics 28: 45–70.
Tomasello, Rosario. 2023. “Linguistic
signs in action: The neuropragmatics of speech acts.” Brain and
Language 236: 105203.
Tromp, Johanne, Peter Hagoort, and Antje S. Meyer. 2016. “Pupillometry
reveals increased pupil size during indirect request comprehension.” Quarterly Journal of
Experimental
Psychology 69: 1093–1108.
Trosborg, Anna. 1995. Interlanguage
Pragmatics: Requests, Complaints, and
Apologies. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Upadhyay, Shiv R. 2003. “Nepali requestive acts:
Linguistic indirectness and politeness reconsidered.” Journal of
Pragmatics 35 (10–11): 1651–1677.
Urbanik, Pawel K. 2017. “Requests in Polish and
Norwegian informal conversation: A comparative study of grammatical and pragmatic
patterns.” PhD dissertation, University of Oslo.
Van Ackeren, Markus J., Daniel Casasanto, Harold Bekkering, Peter Hagoort, and Shirley-Ann Rueschemeyer. 2012. “Pragmatics
in action: Indirect requests engage theory of mind areas and the cortical motor
network.” Journal of Cognitive
Neuroscience 24 (11): 2237–2247.
Venuti, Ilaria. 2020. “Politeness,
indirectness and efficacy in Italian and German requestive speech acts.” PhD
dissertation, Università Ca’ Foscari Venezia.
Veres-Guśpiel, Agnieska. 2020. “Social
contexts of indirect requests in Polish and Hungarian.” New Horizons in English
Studies 5 (1): 24–47.
Walker, Traci. 2013. “Requests.” In Handbook
of Pragmatics: Pragmatics of Speech Actions, ed. by Marina Sbisà and Ken Turner, 445–466. Berlin: De Gruyter.
Wierzbicka, Anna. 1985. “Different
cultures, different languages, different speech acts. Journal of
Pragmatics 9: 145–178.
Yu, Kyong-Ae. 2011. “Culture-specific
concepts of politeness: Indirectness and politeness in English, Hebrew and Korean
requests.” Intercultural
Pragmatics 8 (3): 385–409.
Cited by (2)
Cited by two other publications
Achimova, Asya, Michael Franke, Martin V. Butz & Gareth J. Baxter
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 17 november 2025. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.
