Cover not available

Article published In: Historiographia Linguistica
Vol. 49:1 (2022) ► pp.102–132

Get fulltext from our e-platform
JBE logo with link
PDF logo with download linkDownload PDF
EPUB logo with download linkDownload EPUB
authorization required

The Adaptation of Western and Chinese Categories to the Description of Manchu

 | Université Paul Valéry, Montpellier
Published online: 17 January 2023
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/hl.00105.gia
Summary
Frequent contacts between European countries and China during the Qing period kindled interest in the languages spoken in the Qing empire and led to the publication of numerous Western books on Chinese varieties but also on the Manchu language. To describe the features of these distant languages, most of these works adapted Western linguistic categories and terminologies. This was the case of the earliest Western grammar of Manchu, Verbiest’s Elementa linguae tartaricae (1682). However, some Western works progressively integrated elements of the Chinese linguistic tradition. For instance, the grammars of Kaulen, Franz (=Franciscus). 1856. Lingua Mandshuricae Institutiones quas conscripsit, Indicibus ornavit Chrestomathia et Vocabulario auxit. Ratisbonae [=Regensburg]: G. Josephus Manz. Available at: [URL] and Harlez, Charles. 1884. Manuel de la langue mandchoue; grammaire, anthologie & lexique. Paris: Maisonneuve frères & Ch. Leclerc. Avaliable at: [URL] refer to the Chinese categories “full words” (content words) and “empty words” (function words). Other Western works translated or drew on Chinese-Manchu bilingual primers, which in turn adapted the methodology and categories of Chinese philology to the description of Manchu, such as in the textbooks by Shěn, Qǐliàng 沈啟亮. 1682. Manju bithe j’i nan Qīngshū zhǐnán 清書指南 [A Guide to Manchu]. Manuscript Mandchou 68, French National Library (BNF).Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar and Wǔ-gé 舞格. 1730. Cing wen ki meng bithe. Qīngwén qǐméng 清文啟蒙. Manuscript Mandchou 56. French National Library (BNF). Accessible at the following address: [URL]. Their western translations (Domenge, Jean. n.d. Fragmens d’un Essay de Méthode pour apprendre La langue des Moüan-tchoux ou Tartares Orientaux qui sont aujourd’hui Maitres de la Chine. Ms Mandchou 275. French National Library (BNF).; Wylie, Alexander. 1855. Translation of the Ts’ing Wan K’e Mung, A Chinese Grammar of the Manchu Tartar Language; with Introductory Notes on Manchu Literature. Shanghae [=Shanghai]: London Mission Press. Available at [URL]; Hoffman 1883) resulted in interesting examples of circulation of linguistic knowledge and amalgamation of descriptive categories.
Résumé
L’époque Qing se caractérise par des contacts croissants entre les pays européens et la Chine, lesquels conduisent à une riche production d’ouvrages destinés à l’apprentissage des langues chinoises ainsi que du mandchou. La plupart de ces ouvrages décrivent la grammaire mandchoue en adoptant les catégories et la terminologie de la tradition occidentale, à l’instar de la première grammaire occidentale du mandchou, les Elementa linguae tartaricae de Verbiest, Ferdinand. 1682. Elementa linguae tartaricae [Elements of the Manchu Language]. Paris: Thomas Moette. Available at: [URL]. Cependant, certains ouvrages intègrent progressivement des éléments de la tradition linguistique chinoise. Les grammaires de Kaulen, Franz (=Franciscus). 1856. Lingua Mandshuricae Institutiones quas conscripsit, Indicibus ornavit Chrestomathia et Vocabulario auxit. Ratisbonae [=Regensburg]: G. Josephus Manz. Available at: [URL] et de Harlez, Charles. 1884. Manuel de la langue mandchoue; grammaire, anthologie & lexique. Paris: Maisonneuve frères & Ch. Leclerc. Avaliable at: [URL] font par exemple référence aux catégories chinoises de « mots pleins » et de « mots vides ». Par ailleurs, d’autres ouvrages occidentaux sont influencés par les méthodes chinoises de mandchou qui, à leur tour, adaptent les catégories et la terminologie de la philologie chinoise à la description du mandchou. C’est notamment le cas des ouvrages de Shěn, Qǐliàng 沈啟亮. 1682. Manju bithe j’i nan Qīngshū zhǐnán 清書指南 [A Guide to Manchu]. Manuscript Mandchou 68, French National Library (BNF).Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar et de Wǔ-gé 舞格. 1730. Cing wen ki meng bithe. Qīngwén qǐméng 清文啟蒙. Manuscript Mandchou 56. French National Library (BNF). Accessible at the following address: [URL]. Les traductions de ces ouvrages en langues occidentales (Domenge s.d. ; Wylie, Alexander. 1855. Translation of the Ts’ing Wan K’e Mung, A Chinese Grammar of the Manchu Tartar Language; with Introductory Notes on Manchu Literature. Shanghae [=Shanghai]: London Mission Press. Available at [URL] ; Hoffman 1883) ont donné lieu à des exemples intéressants de circulation des savoirs linguistiques et d’hybridation des catégories descriptives.
Zusammenfassung
Während der Qing-Dynastie (1644–1911), der letzten Dynastie des chinesischen Kaiserreichs, kam es immer häufiger zu Kontakten zwischen europäischen Ländern und China. Nicht nur wurden in europäischen Sprachen zahlreiche Grammatiken verschiedener chinesischer Sprachen verfasst, sondern auch Texte, die das Mandschu, eine agglutinierende Sprache und eine der offiziellen Sprachen des Reiches, zum Gegenstand haben. In der Regel wurden diese Sprachen anhand der Kategorien und der Terminologie der westlichen Grammatiktradition beschrieben, so etwa in den Elementa linguae tartaricae (Verbiest, Ferdinand. 1682. Elementa linguae tartaricae [Elements of the Manchu Language]. Paris: Thomas Moette. Available at: [URL]) von Ferdinand Verbiest. Erst allmählich wurden auch Elemente der chinesischen Grammatiktradition integriert, insbesondere die Kategorien der “vollen Wörter” (Inhaltswörter) und “leeren Wörter” (Funktionswörter), z.B. in den Grammatiken von Kaulen, Franz (=Franciscus). 1856. Lingua Mandshuricae Institutiones quas conscripsit, Indicibus ornavit Chrestomathia et Vocabulario auxit. Ratisbonae [=Regensburg]: G. Josephus Manz. Available at: [URL] und Harlez, Charles. 1884. Manuel de la langue mandchoue; grammaire, anthologie & lexique. Paris: Maisonneuve frères & Ch. Leclerc. Avaliable at: [URL]. Andere Texte bauten auf zweisprachigen Elementarbüchern Chinesisch-Mandschu auf, die Methoden und Kategorien aus der chinesischen Philologie, u.a. Shěn, Qǐliàng 沈啟亮. 1682. Manju bithe j’i nan Qīngshū zhǐnán 清書指南 [A Guide to Manchu]. Manuscript Mandchou 68, French National Library (BNF).Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar und Wǔ-gé 舞格. 1730. Cing wen ki meng bithe. Qīngwén qǐméng 清文啟蒙. Manuscript Mandchou 56. French National Library (BNF). Accessible at the following address: [URL], übernahmen. Die Übersetzungen dieser Texte in verschiedene europäische Sprachen (Domenge o.J., Wylie, Alexander. 1855. Translation of the Ts’ing Wan K’e Mung, A Chinese Grammar of the Manchu Tartar Language; with Introductory Notes on Manchu Literature. Shanghae [=Shanghai]: London Mission Press. Available at [URL], Hoffman 1883) führten dazu, dass sich deskriptive Kategorien unterschiedlicher Herkunft miteinander vermischten und sich neue linguistische Wissensformen verbreiteten.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.The first Western grammar of Manchu and its translations
  • 3.The Chinese textbooks of Manchu
  • 4.Western translations of Chinese primers
  • 5.Chinese categories in Western grammars
  • 6.Concluding remarks
  • Notes
  • References
References (64)
References
A. Primary sources
Abel-Rémusat, Jean-Pierre. 1815. Programme du cours de langue et de littérature chinoises et de tartare-mandchou ; précédé du Discours prononcé à la première séance de ce cours dans l’une des salles du Collège royal de France, le 16 janvier 1815. Paris: Charles. Available at: [URL] (consulted 28/04/2022).
. 1820. Recherches sur les langues tartares, ou mémoires sur différens points de la grammaire et de la littérature des mandchous, des mongols, des ouigours et des tibetains. Paris: Imprimerie Royale. Available at: [URL]
. N.d. Grammaire mandchoue, Manuscript Mandchou 274, French National Library (BNF). Available at: [URL]
Amiot, Joseph-Marie. 1787. Grammaire Tartare-Mantchou, par M. Amiot, missionaire à Pekin, Tirée du Tome XIII des Mémoires concernant l’Histoire, les Arts, les Sciences, &c. des Chinois. Paris: Nyon. Available at: [URL] (consulted 09/05/2022).
Domenge, Jean. n.d. Fragmens d’un Essay de Méthode pour apprendre La langue des Moüan-tchoux ou Tartares Orientaux qui sont aujourd’hui Maitres de la Chine. Ms Mandchou 275. French National Library (BNF).
Edkins, Joseph. 1868 [1853]. A Grammar of Colloquial Chinese: as Exhibited in the Shanghai Dialect (2 ed.). Shanghai: Presbyterian Mission Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Harlez, Charles. 1884. Manuel de la langue mandchoue; grammaire, anthologie & lexique. Paris: Maisonneuve frères & Ch. Leclerc. Avaliable at: [URL]
Hoffmann, Giovanni. 1883. Grammatica mancese, compendiata dall’ opera cinese Zing-ven-ki-mung [Manchu Grammar: A Compendium of the Chinese work Qīngwén Qǐméng 清文啓蒙]. Florence: tipi dei successori Le Monnier.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Julien, Stanislas. 1863. Ji-tch’ang-k’eou-t’eou-hoa: Dialogues chinois à l’usage de l’école spéciale des langues orientales vivantes. Paris: Duprat.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kaulen, Franz (=Franciscus). 1856. Lingua Mandshuricae Institutiones quas conscripsit, Indicibus ornavit Chrestomathia et Vocabulario auxit. Ratisbonae [=Regensburg]: G. Josephus Manz. Available at: [URL]
Langlès, Louis-Mathieu. 1807. Alphabet mantchou: rédigé d’après le syllabaire et le dictionnaire universel de cette langue. Paris: Imprimerie Impériale.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Liú, Qí 劉淇. 2004 [1711]. Zhùzì biànlüè 助字辨略 [Compendium of Grammatical Particles]. Beijing: Zhōnghuá shūjú.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Möllendorff, Paul Georg von. 1892. A Manchu Grammar with Analysed Texts. Shanghai: American Presbyterian Mission Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Raux, Nicolas. 1788. Manju hergen gisun be suwaliyame tacire kooli [Method for learning Manchu script and language]. Manuscript Mandchou 276. French National Library (BNF).Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Shěn, Qǐliàng 沈啟亮. 1682. Manju bithe j’i nan Qīngshū zhǐnán 清書指南 [A Guide to Manchu]. Manuscript Mandchou 68, French National Library (BNF).Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Verbiest, Ferdinand. 1682. Elementa linguae tartaricae [Elements of the Manchu Language]. Paris: Thomas Moette. Available at: [URL]
Vladykinym, Anton. 1804. Man’djurskaia grammatika v pol’zu Rossiĭskago iunošestva [Manchu grammar for the benefit of Russian youth]. Manuscript Mandchou 277. French National Library (BNF).Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wǔ-gé 舞格. 1730. Cing wen ki meng bithe. Qīngwén qǐméng 清文啟蒙. Manuscript Mandchou 56. French National Library (BNF). Accessible at the following address: [URL]
Wáng, Yǐnzhī 王引之. 1984 [1798]. Jīngzhuàn shìcí 經傳釋詞 [Explanation of Particles in the Classics and in the Commentaries], Chángshā: Yuèlù shūshè.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wylie, Alexander. 1855. Translation of the Ts’ing Wan K’e Mung, A Chinese Grammar of the Manchu Tartar Language; with Introductory Notes on Manchu Literature. Shanghae [=Shanghai]: London Mission Press. Available at [URL]
Yuán, Rénlín 袁仁林. 2004 [1710]. Xūzìshuō 虛字說 [Treatise on Empty Words]. Beijing: Zhōnghuá shūjú.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
B. Secondary sources
Aalto, Pentti. 1976. “The Elementa Linguae Tartaricae by F. Verbiest, SJ”. Tractata Altaica: Denis Sinor Sexagenario Optime de Rebus Altaicis Merito Dedicata. ed. by Walther Heissig, John R. Krueger & Felix J. Oinas, 1–10. Wiesbaden: Harrossowitz.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1977. “The «Elementa Linguae Tartaricae» by Ferdinand Verbiest, S.J. Translated”. Zentralasiatische Studien 111.35–120.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Arcodia, Giorgio & Bianca Basciano. 2021. Chinese Linguistics: An Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ard, Josh. 1984. “Vowel Harmony in Manchu: a critical overview”. Journal of Linguistics 20:1.57–80. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Auroux, Sylvain. 1992. “Introduction. Le processus de grammatisation et ses enjeux”. Histoire des idées linguistiques. Tome 21: Le développement de la grammaire occidentale ed. by Sylvain Auroux, 11–64. Liège: Mardaga.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1994. La révolution technologique de la grammatisation. Liège: Mardaga.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Aussant, Émilie. 2017. “La Grammaire Sanskrite Étendue-État des lieux”. Histoire Epistémologie Langage 39:2.7–20. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2020. “Extended Sanskrit Grammar and the classification of words”. Beiträge zur Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft 30:1.9–22.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Baxter, William H. 1992. A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology. Berlin-NewYork: Mouton De Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Beffa, Marie-Lise & Marie-Dominique Even. 2011. “Le mandchou”. Dictionnaire des langues ed. by Emilio Bonvini, Joëlle Busuttil & Alain Peyraube, 964–976. Paris: Quadrige / PUF.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Crossley, Pamela & Evelyn S. Rawski. 1993. “A profile of the Manchu language in Ch’ing history”. Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 53:1.63–102. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Durrant, Stephen. 1978. “Clarity Versus Character: Abahai’s Antidote to the Complexities of Chinese”, Deseret Language and Linguistic Society Symposium 4: 1, article 14. Available at: [URL]: 55–64.
Elliott, Mark. 2014. “Abel-Rémusat, la langue mandchoue et la sinologie”. Comptes rendus des séances de l’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres 158:2.973–993. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, Devin. 2021. “Manchu Language Pedagogical Practices: The Connections Between Manuscript and Printed Books”. Saksaha 171. Available at: [URL].
Gianninoto, Mariarosaria. 2022. “A Chinese textbook of Manchu and its Western translations”. Language & History. 65:2.134–147. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. Forthcoming. “Entries and Glossaries on Empty Words in Western Sources during the Qing Period”. Interpreting Empires. Mastering Languages, Taming the World. Dictionaries and multilingual Lexicons in East Asia ed by Michela Bussotti & François Lachaud, 312–339. Paris: École Française d’Extrême-Orient.
Gorelova, Liliya. M. 2002. Manchu Grammar. Leiden, Boston & Köln: Brill. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Harbsmeier, Christoph. 1998. Language and Logic. Science and Civilization in China. vol. VII:1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ikegami, Jirō 池上二郎. 1962. “Yōroppa ni aru Manshūgo bunken ni tsuite” ヨーロッパにある満洲語文献について [Manchu Materials in European Libraries]. Tōyō gakuhō 45:3.104–121.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lǐ, Yún 李雲. 2021. “17世紀至19世紀滿語教材研究綜述” [A Summary of the Research on Manchu Textbooks from the 17th to the 19th Century]. Higashiajia bunka kōshō kenkyū 東アジア文化交渉研究 [Journal of East Asian Cultural Interaction Studies], 553–561.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lin, William C. J. 1984. “What does the Mandarin particle NE communicate?”. Cahiers de Linguistique – Asie orientale, 13:2.217–240. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Liú, Yún 刘云. 2009. Hànyǔ xūcí zhīshì kù de jiànshè 汉语虚词知识库的建设 [Building a Knowledge Base on Chinese Empty Words]. Wuhan: Huázhōng shīfàn dàxué chūbǎnshè.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mèng, Zhāolián 孟昭连. 2014. “Lùn ‘cí’——wényán yǔqì cí fēi kǒuyǔ zàishuō” 论“辞”——文言语气词非口语再说 [About the ‘Ci’, A New Theory on the Particles of Classical Chinese], Nánkāi xuébào 南开学报 [Journal of Nankai University] 51. Available at: [URL]
Norman, Jerry. 1978. A Concise Manchu- English Lexicon. Seattle & London: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Norman, Jerry & Wadley, Steve. 2017. “Manchu Language”. Encyclopedia of Chinese Language and Linguistics, ed. by Rint Sybesma, II1, 666–672. Leiden & Boston: Brill.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Paul, Waltraud & Pan, Victor Junnan. 2017. “What you see is what you get: Chinese sentence-final particles as head-final complementisers”. Discourse Particles – Formal Approaches to their Syntax and Semantics, ed by Joseph Bayer & Volker Struckmeier, 49–77. Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pelliot, Paul. 1922. “Le véritable auteur des Elementa Linguae Tartaricae”. T’oung Pao 21:1.367–386. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Péng, Qiǎoyàn 彭巧燕. 2014. “Lùn ‘Shuō wén guǎngyì’ de xūcí yánjiū” 論《說文廣義》的虛詞研究 [On the function words of Shuo wen guang yi], Húnán kējì dàxué xuébào (shèhuì kēxué bǎn) 湖南科技大學學報（社會科學版） [Journal of Hunan University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition) 17:5.98–104.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Söderblom Saarela, Mårten. 2014. “Shi’er zitou jizhu (Collected notes on the twelve heads): A Recently Discovered Work by Shen Qiliang”. Saksaha 121. Available at [URL]
. 2020. The Early Modern Travels of Manchu: A Script and Its Study in East Asia and Europe. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. Forthcoming. “Manchu Studies and the Jesuit Mission to China: Between Mandarin and Classical Chinese”. Interpreting Empires. Mastering Languages, Taming the World. Dictionaries and multilingual Lexicons in East Asia, ed. by Michela Bussotti &, François Lachaud, 380–419. Paris: École Française d’Extrême-Orient.
Takekoshi, Takashi 竹越 孝. 2004. 翻字翻訳『清文助語虚字』 [Translation and Transliteration of the “Manchu Empty Words and Grammatical Particles”]. Available at: [URL]
Takekoshi, Takashi 竹越孝. 2005. 翻字翻訳『清書指南・飜清虚字講約』 [Transcription and translation of the chapter “Translation and explication of Manchu empty words” of A Guide to Manchu]. Available at: [URL]
. 2011. Ken mankango Manshū Tōwa shinbun keimou: Honji hon’yaku sakuin 兼滿漢語滿洲套話清文啓蒙 : 翻字・翻訳・索引 [Jian man hanyu manzhou taohua qinggwen qimeng : transliteration, translation and index]. (=Monograph Series in Foreign Studies, vol. 49). Kobe: Kobe University of Foreign Studies.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2014. “Zhōngguó rén zěnyàng xuéxí wàiguóyǔ yǔfǎ? ——Yǐ qīngdài mǎnyǔ yǔfǎ jiàocái wéi lì” 中國人怎樣學習外國語語法？ ——以清代滿語語法教材為例 [How do Chinese learn foreign language grammar? The Exemple of Qing Dynasty Manchu grammar textbooks]. Kotonoha 1391. Available at: [URL]
. 2015. “Cóng Mǎnyǔ Jiàocái dào Hànyǔ Jiàocái: Qīngdài Mǎnhàn Hébì Huìhuà Jiàocái de Yǔyán Jí Qí Yǎnbiàn” 從滿語教材到漢語教材――清代滿漢合璧會話教材的語言及其演變 [From Manchu textbooks to Chinese textbooks: Linguistic feature and historical change of Manchu-Chinese bilingual conversation books in Qing dynasty]. Mínzú Yǔwén 民族語文 61. 66–75.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Takekoshi, Takashi 竹越孝 & Chén Xiǎo 陳曉 eds. 2018. Qīngwén Qǐméng 清文啓蒙 [An Introduction to Manchu], (=Monograph Series Zǎoqī běijīnghuà zhēnxī wénxiàn jìchéng 期北京話珍稀文獻集成 A Collection of Rare Documents on Early Pekingese). Beijing: Peking University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Takekoshi, Takashi. 2019. “Grammatical Descriptions in Manchu Grammar Books from the Qing Dynasty”. Histoire Épistémologie, Langage 41:1.39–56. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Uchida, Keiichi. 2017. A Study of Cultural Interaction and Linguistic Contact: Approaching Chinese from the Periphery. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Van Rooy, Raf. 2021. “How Greek is the Graeco-Latin model? Some critical reflections on a key concept in missionary linguistic historiography through Alexandre de Rhodes’s early description of Vietnamese (1651)”. Missionary Linguistics VI: Missionary Linguistics in Asia. Selected papers from the Tenth International Conference on Missionary Linguistics, Rome, 21–24 March 2018 (=Studies in the History of the Language Sciences 130) ed. by Otto Zwartjes and Paolo De Troia, 217–230. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wáng, Lì 王力. 1996. Zhōngguó yǔyánxué shǐ 中國語言學史. Tapei: Wǔnán túshū.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zhào, Zhènduó 赵振铎. 2000. Zhōngguó yǔyánxué shǐ 中国语言学史 [History of Chinese Linguistics]. Shíjiāzhuāng: Héběi jiàoyù chūbǎnshè.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zwartjes, Otto. 2020. “Between Grammars and Dictionaries: The ‘Tratado de las partículas’ (Treatise on Particles) in Diego de Basalenque’s Work on Matlatzinca”. Missionary Linguistic Studies from Mesoamerica to Patagonia ed. by Astrid Alexander-Bakkerus, Rebeca Fernández Rodríguez; Liesbeth Zack & Otto Zwartjes, 81–135. Leiden & Boston: Brill.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cited by (1)

Cited by one other publication

Gianninoto, Mariarosaria
2025. The Chinese Linguistic Tradition. In Reference Module in Social Sciences, DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 10 december 2025. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.

Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue