Cover not available

Article In: Diachronica: Online-First Articles

Integrating linguistic and geographic methods in toponymic analysis

The case of Puquina (Central Andes)

ORCiD logo with link | University of Groningen
ORCiD logo with link | Utrecht University
This content is being prepared for publication; it may be subject to changes.
Abstract
Toponyms offer valuable clues regarding historical language geographies, but toponymic analysis has often suffered from methodological shortcomings. In particular, post-hoc semantic claims, unmotivated formal correspondences, and lack of systematic corroboration undermine the reliability of many proposals. This paper outlines two modes of toponymic research — form-to-geography and geography-to-form — and introduces four simple, replicable methods for reducing false positives. These methods draw upon the dual character of toponyms as both geographic and linguistic data as well as the quantitative analysis of large datasets. We apply these methods to two languages of the Central Andes: first Aymara, and then Puquina, a poorly documented language whose toponymic record is uncertain. A clear Puquina footprint is identified around Lake Titicaca. We advocate moving beyond the treatment of toponyms as isolated etymological puzzles and focusing also on their spatial patterning. Such an approach emphasizes reproducibility, scalability, falsifiability, and empirical transparency, while remaining complementary to traditional qualitative methods.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Toponyms and language history in South American linguistics
    • 2.1Form-to-geography approaches
    • 2.2Geography-to-form approaches
  • 3.The Puquina language
  • 4.Methodological problems in the use of toponymic data
    • 4.1Post hoc semantic claims
    • 4.2Ad hoc and unmotivated formal correspondences
    • 4.3Lack of systematic corroboration
  • 5.Geographical and lexical data
  • 6.Some methodological approaches to toponymic data
    • 6.1Length constraint
    • 6.2Morphological position constraint
    • 6.3Geographic feature constraint
    • 6.4Mutual proximity constraint
    • 6.5Combining constraints
  • 7.Discussion and conclusion
  • Workflow availability
  • Acknowledgements
  • Notes
  • Author queries
  • References
References (136)
References
Adelaar, Willem F. H. 1986. La relación Quechua-Aru: Perspectivas para la separación del léxico. Revista Andina 4(2). 379–426.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
1987. Comment on Torero (1987). Revista Andina 5(2). 373–375.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
1988. Search for the Culli Language. In Maarten Jansen, Peter van der Loo, and Roswitha Manning (eds.), Continuity and identity in Native America. Essays in honor of Benedikt Hartmann, 111–31. Leiden: Brill. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2007. The importance of toponymy, family names and historical documentation for the study of disappearing and recently extinct languages in the Andean region. In Leo Wetzels (ed.), Language endangerment and endangered languages: Linguistic and anthropological studies with special emphasis on the languages and cultures of the Andean-Amazonian border area, 325–331. Leiden: CNWS Publications.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2008. Towards a Typological Profile of the Andean Languages. In Alexander, Lubotsky, Jos Schaeken, and Jeroen Wiedenhof, with the assistance of Rick Derksen and Sjoerd Siebinga (eds.), Evidence and counter-evidence: Essays in honour of Frederik Kortlandt, vol. 2: General linguistics, 23–33. Amsterdam/New York: Rodopi. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2012. Historical overview: Descriptive and comparative research on South American Indian languages. In Lyle Campbell & Grondona, Verónica (eds.), The indigenous languages of South America: A comprehensive guide, 575–624. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2020. Linguistic connections between the Altiplano region and the Amazonian lowlands. In Adrian J. Pearce, David Beresford-Jones, and Paul Heggarty (eds.), Rethinking the Andes–Amazonia divide: A cross-disciplinary exploration, 239–249. London: UCL Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Adelaar, Willem F. H., and Pieter Muysken. 2004. The Languages of the Andes. Cambridge/New York: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Aguilera Jiménez, Domingo Adolfo, et al. 2024. La toponimia en lengua Guaraní del Paraguay. Revista Ñe’ẽ 21. 89–109.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Alvarez Vera, Alcides R. 2024. Toponimia de procedencia culle en la costa de Áncash. El caso del topónimo Mongón. Allpanchis 51(94). 237–274.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Anadarko Petroleum Corporation. 2025. Supplemental exploration plan: Mississippi Canyon Blocks 81, 82, 126 and 127, OCS-G 35312, 35313, 18194 and 19925, Offshore Alabama. Public report, July 2025. The Woodlands, TX: Anadarko Petroleum Corporation.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Andrade Ciudad, Luis. 2010. Contactos y fronteras de lenguas en la Cajamarca prehispánica. Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 141. 165–180. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2020. El castellano andino norperuano: Una historia lingüística y social. Lima: Fondo Editorial de la PUCP.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Andrade Escola, Camilo. 2025. Voces sumergidas: El enigma de la onomástica paleoandina de Ecuador. Quito: Abya Yala.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Arias-Sanchez, Raul Eleazar, Walter Mayhua-Matamoros, Braulio Melchor-Acevedo, and Ronald Condori-Crisostomo. 2025. Etymology of the Toponym Huancavelica through a Historical and Symbolic Approach. Universidad Ciencia y Tecnología 29(129). 136–145. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ávila-Nuñez, Jorge Luis. 2025. Geohistoria de los cambios toponímicos del pico Bolívar de la Sierra Nevada de Mérida, Venezuela. Revista Geográfica Venezolana 66(1). 220–236. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Basso, Keith H. 1996. Wisdom sits in places: Landscape and language among the Western Apache. Albuquerque: UNM Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Beck, Lauren. 2024. Canada’s place names and how to change them. Montreal: Concordia University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Berg, Lawrence D. and Vuolteenaho, Jani. (Eds.) 2009. Critical toponymies: The contested politics of place naming. Aldershot: Ashgate.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bertonio, Ludovico. 1612a. Vocabulario de la lengua aymara. Iuli: Francisco del Canto.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bertonio. 1612b. Libro de la vida y milagros de nuestro señor Iesu Christo en dos lenguas, aymara y romance, traducido de el que recopilo el licenciado Alonso de Villegas, quitadas, y añadidas algunas cosas, y acomodado ala capacidad delos indios. Iuli: Francisco del Canto.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bouysse-Cassagne, Thérèse. 1975. Pertenencia étnica, status económico y lenguas en Charcas a fines del siglo xvi. In Noble David Cook (ed.), Tasa de la visita general de Francisco de Toledo, 312–328. Lima: Fondo Editorial de la Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Burrill, Meredith F. 1956a. Toponymic generics I. Names 4(3). 129–137. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Burrill, Meredith. F. 1956b. Toponymic generics II. Names 4(4). 226–240. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cajavilca, Erik. 2024. La palabra aimara jawira ‘río’: etimología y presencia toponímica. Lengua y Sociedad 23(2). 219–247. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Campbell, Jon. C. 1991. Stream generic terms as indicators of historical settlement patterns. Names 39(4). 333–366. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Campbell, Lyle. 2013. Historical linguistics, 3rd edition. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2024. The indigenous languages of the Americas: History and classification. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Campbell, Lyle and William J. Poser. 2008. Language classification: History and method. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Carranza Rodríguez, Aurelio Maximino. 2024. Análisis del significado de algunos topónimos de la lengua Culli en la región La Libertad. Yacha 7(2). 123–136. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cerrón-Palomino, Rodolfo. 2004. Murúa y sus etimologías toponímicas. Lexis 28(1–2). 273–309. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2010. Contactos y desplazamientos lingüísticos en los Andes centro-sureños: el puquina, el aimara y el quechua. Boletín de Arqueología PUCP 141. 255–282. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2012. Unravelling the enigma of the ‘Particular language’ of the Incas. In Paul Heggarty and Beresford-Jones, David (eds.), Archaeology and language in the Andes: A cross-disciplinary exploration of prehistory, 265–294. London: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2013. Las lenguas de los incas: el puquina, el aimara y el quechua. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2015. Toponimia andina: problemas y métodos. Lexis 39(1). 183–197. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2016a. El lenguaje como hermenéutica en la comprensión del pasado: a propósito del puquina en la génesis del imperio incaico. Diálogo andino 491. 11–27. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2016b. Los nombres primigenios del Cuzco. Revista Histórica 491. 113–132.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2016c. Tras las huellas de la lengua primordial de los incas: evidencia onomástica puquina. Revista Andina 541. 169–208.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2019. La tesis del quechuismo primitivo y su efecto distorsionador en la interpretación del pasado prehispánico. In Marco Curatola (ed.), El estudio del mundo andino, 177–186. Lima: Fondo Editorial de la Pontifica Universidad Católica del Perú.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2020a. Las lenguas del antiguo Colesuyo. Revista del Archivo Regional de Moquegua 11. 5–27.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2020b. La presencia puquina en el aimara y en el quechua: aspectos léxicos y gramaticales. Indiana 37(1). 129–153.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2020c. 〈Chanchán〉 y su trampa ortográfica: ni mochica ni quingnam sino quechumara. Lexis 44(1). 301–316. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2020d. La presencia puquina en el Formativo Tardío en el valle del Cuzco. In Rafael Vega-Centeno and Jalh Dulanto (eds), Los desafíos del tiempo, el espacio y la memoria. Ensayos en homenaje a Peter Kaulicke, 69–87. Lima: Fondo Editorial de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2021a. Sobre la etimología elusiva de puquina. Revista Puquina 3(1). 23–43.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2021b. Otra vuelta de tuerca: la etimología de ‘quechua’ en quechua y aimara. Indiana 38(2). 159–177.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2021c. Los riesgos de una lingüística desmemoriada: a propósito de la etimología puquina de “inca”. Lexis 45(1). 227–261. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2024a. 〈Canchan〉 y no 〈Chan chan〉: definitivamente quechumara y no quingnam. Letras 95(142). 101–117. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2024b. Historical linguistics, philology, and the development of Andean linguistics. In Urban, Matthias (ed.) The Oxford guide to the languages of the Central Andes, 63–81. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2024c. Toponimia Andina. Lima: Fondo Editorial PUCP.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Chevallier, Lennart, and Søren Wichmann. 2024. A Note on the ‘toponym’ R Package: A Practical Introduction. Names 72(3). 76–83. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Clementi, Soeli Bento. 2024. Toponímia de Mato Grosso: Relações entre léxico toponímico, cultura e história. Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul. (Doctoral dissertation.)
Creighton, Anne Marie. 2026. Language, water, place: Multilingualism and its afterlives in Colca, Peru. PhD dissertation, University of Michigan.
Dauzat, Albert. 1926. Les noms de lieux: origine et évolution; villes et villages — pays — cours d’eau — montagnes — lieux-dits. Paris: Delagrave.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Deza Galindo, Juan Francisco. 1989. Jaya Mara Aru nuevo diccionario: Aymara–Castellano, Castellano–Aymara. Lima: Graphos 100 Editores.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Domínguez Faura, Nicanor. 2010. Para una cartografía de la lengua puquina en el altiplano colonial (1548–1610). In Peter Kaulicke, Rodolfo Cerrón-Palomino, Paul Heggarty, and David Beresford-Jones (eds), Lenguas y sociedades en el antiguo Perú: Hacia un enfoque interdisciplinario, 309–328. Boletín De Arqueología PUCP 14. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2014. The Puquina Language in the Early Colonial Southern Andes (1548–1610): a Geographical Analysis. Journal of Latin American Geography 13(2). 181–206. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dos Santos Santos, Laís de Nazaré, and Carmen Lúcia Reis Rodrigues. 2024. Toponímia vigiense: a presença do tupi na toponímia de Vigia de Nazaré-PA. MOARA 147–169.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Durston, Alan. 2013. Language. In E. Levy & K. Mills (eds.), Lexikon of the Hispanic Baroque: Transatlantic exchange and transformation, 189–192. University of Texas Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2008. Pastoral Quechua: The history of Christian translation in colonial Peru, 1550–1654. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Embleton, Shiela. 1994–1995. Place names in Finland: Settlement history, sociolinguistics, and the Finnish/Swedish language boundary. Onoma 231. 124–139.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Emlen, Nicholas Q. 2017. Perspectives on the Quechua-Aymara contact relationship and the lexicon and phonology of Pre-Proto-Aymara. International Journal of American Linguistics 83(2). 307–340. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
2020. Language, coffee, and migration on an Andean-Amazonian frontier. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Emlen, Nicholas Q. and Arjan Mossel. 2023. Northern Aymaran toponymy, revisited: A systematic approach to the linguistic origins of place names. International Journal of American Linguistics 89(4). 493–530. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Emlen, Nicholas Q. 2024. The Quechuan-Aymaran relationship. In Urban, Matthias (ed.) The Oxford guide to the languages of the Central Andes, 757–782. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Emlen, Nicholas Q., Rik van Gijn and Sietze Norder. 2024a. The Andean–Amazonian interface: Sociolinguistic relations and areal–typological patterns. In Urban, Matthias (ed.) The Oxford guide to the languages of the Central Andes, 818–838. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Emlen, Nicholas Q., Arjan Mossel, Simon van de Kerke and Willem F. H. Adelaar. 2024b. Puquina. In Urban, Matthias (ed.) The Oxford guide to the languages of the Central Andes, 335–391. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(forthcoming). The Puquina corpus, with parallel texts in Spanish, Quechua, and Aymara. Berlin: Language Science Press.
Endt, Enno. 1972. Bargoens woordenboek [Bargoens dictionary]. Amsterdam: Erven Thomas Rap.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Espinoza Soriano, Waldemar. 1982. Los fundamentos lingüísticos de la etnohistoria andina y comentarios en torno al Anónimo de Charcas. In Rodolfo Cerrón-Palomino (ed.), Aula Quechua, 163–202. Lima: Signo Universitario.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2005. Las lenguas nativas del altiplano peruano-boliviano en el siglo xvi. Investigaciones Sociales 141. 121–153.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Floyd, Simeon. 2022. Ecuadorian Highland Quichua and the lost languages of the Northern Andes. International Journal of American Linguistics. 88(1). 1–52. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2025. Realidad y fantasías en la toponimia pre-kichwa ecuatoriana. Revista Sarance 551. 42–99. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Fuchs, Stephan. 2015. An integrated approach to Germanic place names in the American Midwest. The Professional Geographer 67(3). 330–341. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
GeoNames. 2025. GeoNames geographical database. Version updated September 21, 2025. Retrieved from [URL] on September 22, 2025.
Haas, Randall, Ioana C. Stefanescu, Alexander Garcia-Putnam, Mark S. Aldenderfer, Mark T. Clementz, Melissa S. Murphy, Carlos Viviano Llave, and James T. Watson. 2017. Humans permanently occupied the Andean highlands by at least 7 ka. Royal Society Open Science 4(6). 170331. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hannß, Katja. 2017. The etymology of Kallawaya. Journal of Language Contact 10(2). 219–263. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Howard, Penny McCall. 2017. Environment, labour and capitalism at sea: ‘working the ground’ in Scotland. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2017. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Huden, John C. 1962. Indian place names of New England. New York: Museum of the American Indian; Heye Foundation. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Itier, César. 2024. Palabras clave de la sociedad y la cultura incas. Lima: IFEA.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kashfi, Ehsan. 2023. The politics of street names: Reconstructing Iran’s collective identity. Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism 23(2). 122–143. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Krasnoukhova, Olga. 2012. The noun phrase in the languages of South America. Utrecht: LOT.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Krzanowski, Andrzej, and Jan Szemiński. 1978. La toponimia indígena en la cuenca del río Chicama (Perú). Estudios Latinoamericanos 41. 11–51. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kupemba, Danai Nesta. 2025. Mexico sues Google over ‘Gulf of America’ name change. BBC, 9 May, 2025. [URL]
MacLochlainn, Scott. 2025. Naming and namelessness. Annual Review of Anthropology 541. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mailhammer, Robert. 2016. Place names as clues to lost languages? A comparison between Europe and Australia. In Austin, P. K., Koch, H., Simpson, J., (Eds.) Language, land & song: Studies in Honour of Luise Hercus, 318–329. London: EL Publishing.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mannheim, Bruce. 1991. The language of the Inka since the European invasion. Austin: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Meillet, Antoine. 1925. La méthode comparative en linguistique historique. Oslo: H. Aschehoug and Co.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Michael, Lev. 2021. The classification of South American languages. Annual Review of Linguistics 71. 329–349. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Michael, Lev, Nicholas Q. Emlen, and Roberto Zariquiery Biondi. (Forthc.). Motivation and systematicity in phonological adaptation: The case of Indigenous language loanwords in Yanesha’.
Middendorf, Ernst. W. 1891. Die Aimarà-Sprache. Mit einer Einleitung über die frühere Verbreitung der diese Sprache redenden Rasse und ihr Verhältnis zu den Inkas. Leipzig: F. A. Brockhaus.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mihas, Elena. 2015. Landscape terms in Alto Perené Kampa (Arawak) of Peru. Acta Linguistica Hafniensia 47(2). 101–135. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Millones, Luis. 1971. Pastores y tejedores de los condesuyos de Arequipa: informe etnológico al concejo de regencia. Quinto Congreso Internacional de Historia de América. Lima: Comisión del Sesquicentinario de la Independencia del Perú, 302–317.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mills, A. D. 2003. A dictionary of British place-names. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mossel, Arjan. 2009. Pukina Toponymie: Geografische verspreiding van plaatsnamen in een uitgestorven taal uit de zuid-centrale Andes. Leiden University, Bachelors thesis.
Mossel, Arjan, Nicholas Q. Emlen, Simon van de Kerke & Willem F. H. Adelaar. 2020. Puquina kin terms. In Astrid Alexander Bakkerus, Rebeca Fernández Rodríguez, Liesbeth Zack & Otto Zwartjes (eds.), Missionary linguistic studies from Mesoamerica to Patagonia, 277–298. Leiden: Brill. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Murúa, Martín de. [1613]1987. Historia general del Perú. Madrid: Historia 16.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Muysken, Pieter. 2024. Kallawaya. In Urban, Matthias (ed.) The Oxford guide to the languages of the Central Andes, 438–468. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nickerson, Raymond S. 1998. Confirmation bias: A ubiquitous phenomenon in many guises. Review of General Psychology 2(2). 175–220. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Norder, S. J., Becker, L., Skirgård, H., Arias, L., Witzlack-Makarevich, A., van Gijn, R. 2022. glottospace: R package for language mapping and geospatial analysis of linguistic and cultural data. J. Open Source Software 71. 4303. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Oré, Lvdovicvs Hieronymvs. 1607. Ritvale, sev manvale Pervanvm, et forma brevis administrandi apud Indos sacrosancta Baptismi, Poenitentiæ, Eucharistiæ, Matrimonij, & Extremæ vnctionis Sacramenta. Naples: Io. Iacobus Carlinus & Constantinus Vitalis.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Paz Soldán. 1877. Diccionario Geográfico Estadístico del Perú. Lima: Imp. del Estado.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Paz y Miño, Luís Telmo. 1961. Las agrupaciones y lenguas indígenas del Ecuador, en 1500 y 1959. Boletín de la Academia Nacional de Historia 43(97). 5–17.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pebesma, E. 2018. Simple Features for R: Standardized Support for Spatial Vector Data. The R Journal 10(1). 439–446. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Polo, José Toribio. 1901. Indios Uros del Perú y Bolivia. Boletín de la Sociedad Geográfica de Lima 101. 445–482.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
R Core Team. 2024. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ramos Vasquez, Marcos Jhordan. 2024. Toponimia del distrito de Poroto. Universidad Nacional de Trujillo. (Bachelors thesis.)
Retamozo Gálvez, Wilson. 2024. Estudio léxico de la toponimia menor del centro poblado de Veracruz-Totos, Perú. Lengua y Sociedad 23(1). 451–466. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Retamozo Galvez, Wilson. 2026. Análisis léxico-semántico y morfosintáctico de la toponimia menor del centro poblado de Veracruz, Ayacucho, Perú. Anuario De Letras Lingüística y Filología 14(1). 223–58. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ringe, Donald A. 1992. On calculating the factor of chance in language comparison. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 82(1). 1–110. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Roth, Walter E. 1915. An inquiry into the animism and folk-lore of the Guiana Indians. Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology 301. 103–386.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Saignes, Thierry. 1983. ¿Quienes son los kallawaya? Nota sobre un enigma etnohistórico. Revista Andina 21. 357–384.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 1985. Los Andes Orientales: Historia de un olvido. Cochabamba: CERES. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
South, A. 2017. rnaturalearth: World map data from natural Earth. R package version 0.1.0. [URL]
Taylor, Gerald. 1990. La lengua de los antiguos Chachapuyas. In Rodolfo Cerrón-Palomino, & G. Solís Fonseca (Eds.), Temas de lingüística amerindia: Primer Congreso Nacional de Investigaciones Lingüístico-Filológicas. Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología/Programa de Educación Bilingüe de Puno, 121–139.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tennekes, M. 2018. tmap: Thematic Maps in R. Journal of Statistical Software 84(6). 1–39. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Tent, Jan. 2015. Approaches to research in toponymy. Names 63(2). 65–74. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Toledo, Francisco de. 1867[1575]. Relaciones de los vireyes y audiencias que han gobernado el Perú. Memorial y ordenanzas de d. Francisco de Toledo. Lima: Imprenta del Estado por J. E. del Campo.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Torero, Alfredo. 1989. Areas toponímicas e idiomas en la sierra norte peruana: un trabajo de recuperación lingüística. Revista Andina 7(1). 217–257.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2002. Idiomas de los Andes: Lingüística e historia. Lima: Instituto Francés de Estudios Andinos/Editorial Horizonte.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Torres Menchola, Denis. 2024. El den y el cat: aproximaciones a un mismo idioma cajamarquino. Lexis 48(2). 824–860. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Urban, Matthias. 2017. Observaciones etimológicas acerca del nombre de la ciudad antigua de Chan Chan y sus estructuras arquitectónicas. Letras 881. 126–148. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2019. Lost languages of the Peruvian North Coast. Berlin: Ibero-American Institute/Gebr. Mann.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2021. Cholón and the linguistic prehistory of northern Peru: Triangulating toponymy, substrate lexis, and areal typology. Linguistic Discovery 17(1). Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2022. 〈Chan Chan〉 y su trampa etimológica: respuesta a Cerrón-Palomino. Lexis 46(1). 103–123. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2023. Linguistic stratigraphy: Recovering traces of lost languages in the Central Andes. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
. 2025. Combining disparate lines of evidence in the study of the history of language isolates, exemplified with Mochica from Northern Peru. In Iker Salaberri, Dorota Krajewska, Ekaitz Santazilia and Eneko Zuloaga (eds.). Investigating language isolates, 176–207. John Benjamins. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
USGS Astrogeology Science Center. 2025. Gazetteer of planetary nomenclature: Rules and conventions. International Astronomical Union Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature. [URL]
Vargas Ugarte, Rubén. 1953. Historia de la iglesia en el Perú, vol. 1. Lima: Imprenta Santa Maria.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Valqui Culqui, Jairo. 2003. Rastreo a la extinta lengua de los Chachapoyas. Lengua y Sociedad 51. 62–71. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Valqui Culqui, Jairo, and Michaela Ziemendorff. 2016. Vestigios de una lengua originaria en el territorio de la cultura chachapoya. Letras 87(125). 5–32. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wang, Fahui, Ling Zhang, Guoping Zhang, and Hong Zhang. 2013. Mapping and spatial analysis of multiethnic toponyms in Yunnan, China. Cartography and Geographic Information Science 41(1). 86–99. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wichmann, Søren and Lennart Chevallier. 2025. Mapping place names. Names 73(2). 1–19. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wickham, H., Romain, F., Henry, L., & Müller, K. 2023. dplyr: A grammar of data manipulation. R package version 1.1.4.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ziemendorff, Michaela, and Jairo Valqui Culqui. 2024. El legado ‘chacha’ en la antroponimia del distrito de Yambrasbamba. Nombres 8(1). 58–79.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zhou, Zheng, Elham Rahme, Michal Abrahamowicz, and Louise Pilote. 2005. Survival bias associated with time-to-treatment initiation in drug effectiveness evaluation: A comparison of methods. American Journal of Epidemiology 162(10). 1016–1023. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue