Article published In: Diachronica
Vol. 40:1 (2023) ► pp.1–29
Agreement in Kadu
Inflectional merger as morphosyntactic abstraction
Published online: 16 September 2022
https://doi.org/10.1075/dia.20068.bae
https://doi.org/10.1075/dia.20068.bae
Abstract
Krongo, a member of the Kadu family (Nuba Mountains, Sudan), has four agreement classes: feminine, masculine,
neuter and plural (Reh, Mechtild. 1985. Die Krongo-Sprache (Nìinò Mó-Dì): Beschreibung, Texte, Wörterverzeichnis. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag.). Nominal number-marking prefixes play a key role in class
assignment: productive plural prefixes trigger plural agreement, and productive singular prefixes trigger neuter agreement. In
most other Kadu languages, there is no distinction between plural and neuter classes. Comparative and typological evidence shows
that Krongo’s system represents the older state of affairs. It is argued that the motivation for the merger of these two classes
was a morphosyntactic abstraction over agreement rules. Two distinct rules, one for singular prefixes and one for plural prefixes,
were replaced by a single rule that assigned the same agreement class to all productive number prefixes, regardless of whether
they mark singular or plural. The result is the morphosyntactic mirror-image of an inverse number system, such as is found in, for
example, Dagaare (Grimm, Scott. 2012. Individuation and inverse number marking in Dagaare. In Diane Massam (ed.), Count and mass across languages, 75–98. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ).
Keywords: agreement class, gender, inflection, syncretism, Krongo, Kadu family
Zusammenfassung
Krongo, eine Sprache der Kadu-Familie (gesprochen in den Nuba-Bergen, Sudan), hat vier Kongruenzklassen:
Feminin, Maskulin, Neutrum und Plural (Reh, Mechtild. 1985. Die Krongo-Sprache (Nìinò Mó-Dì): Beschreibung, Texte, Wörterverzeichnis. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag.). Nominale Numeruspräfixe spielen eine
zentrale Rolle in der Kongruenzklassenzuweisung: produktive Pluralpräfixe lösen Pluralkongruenz aus, produktive Singularpräfixe
lösen Neutrumkongruenz aus. In den meisten anderen Kadusprachen gibt es gar keinen Unterschied zwischen den Plural- und
Neutrumklassen. Vergleichende und typologische Beobachtungen weisen darauf, dass das System in Krongo das ältere ist. Es wird
argumentiert, dass dieses Zusammenfallen der zwei Klassen von einer Art Abstraktion über die Kongruenzregeln motiviert war. Zwei
verschiedene Regeln, von denen eine für Singularpräfixe galt und die andere für Pluralpräfixe, wurden durch eine einzige Regel
ersetzt, nach der alle Numeruspräfixe die gleiche Kongruenzklasse auslösen, egal ob sie Singular- oder Pluralmarker sind. Das
Ergebnis ist das morphosyntaktische Spiegelbild eines inversen Numerussystems, wie es in z.B. Dagaare zu finden ist (Grimm, Scott. 2012. Individuation and inverse number marking in Dagaare. In Diane Massam (ed.), Count and mass across languages, 75–98. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ).
Résumé
La langue krongo, qui appartient à la famille kadu (parlée dans les monts Nuba au Soudan), a quatre classes
d’accord: féminin, masculin, neutre et pluriel (Reh, Mechtild. 1985. Die Krongo-Sprache (Nìinò Mó-Dì): Beschreibung, Texte, Wörterverzeichnis. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag.). Les préfixes
nominaux qui marquent le nombre jouent un rôle clé dans l’attribution du genre: en particulier, les préfixes pluriels
productifs provoquent l’accord pluriel, et les préfixes productifs singuliers (ou singulatifs) l’accord neutre.
Dans la plupart des autres langues kadu il n’y a pas de distinction entre les classes plurielles et neutres. Des indices
comparatifs et typologiques montrent que le krongo représente l’état le plus ancien. Nous soutenons que la fusion de ces
deux classes a été motivée par une abstraction morphosyntaxique sur les règles d’accord. Deux règles distinctes, une pour
les préfixes singuliers et une pour les préfixes pluriels, ont été remplacées par une règle unique qui attribuait la même classe
d’accord à tous les préfixes de nombre productifs, qu’ils marquent le singulier ou le pluriel. Le résultat est le
contraire, sur le plan morphosyntaxique, d’un système de nombres inverses, comme par exemple celui que l’on
observe dans la langue dagaare (Grimm, Scott. 2012. Individuation and inverse number marking in Dagaare. In Diane Massam (ed.), Count and mass across languages, 75–98. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ).
Article outline
- 1.Introduction
- 2.Gender, agreement and noun morphology in the Kadu languages
- 3.Evidence for the merger of agreement classes
- 3.1Agreement on nominal modifiers
- 3.2Morphological and lexical correspondences
- 3.3First singular/second singular n-
- 3.4A note on third person pronouns
- 3.5Interim summary
- 4.Class merger as morphosyntactic abstraction
- 5.Conclusion
- Acknowledgements
- Notes
- Abbreviations
References
References (35)
Baerman, Matthew & Greville G. Corbett. 2013. Person by other means. In Dik Bakker & Martin Haspelmath (eds.), Languages across boundaries: Studies in memory of Anna Siewierska, 13–26. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Blench, Roger. 2006. The Kadu languages and their affiliation: Between Nilo-Saharan, Niger-Congo and Afro-Asiatic. In Al-Amin Abu-Manga, Leoma Gilley & Anne Storch (eds.), Insights into Nilo-Saharan language, history and culture, 101–127. Cologne: Rüdiger Köppe.
Bond, Oliver. 2019. Where are gender values and how do I get to them? In Matthew Baerman, Oliver Bond & Andrew Hippisley (eds.), Morphological perspectives, 327–369. Edinburgh University Press.
Byarushengo, Ernest Rugwa. 1977. Preliminaries. In Ernest Rugwa Byarushengo, Alessandro Duranti, & Larry M. Hyman (eds), Haya grammatical structure (Southern California Occasional Papers in Linguistics 6), 1–15. Los Angeles: Department of Linguistics, University of Southern California.
Bruil, Martine. 2014. Clause-typing and evidentiality in Ecuadorian Siona. PhD dissertation, Leiden University.
Chacon, Thiago C. & Lev Michael. 2018. The evolution of subject-verb agreement in Eastern Tukanoan. Journal of Historical Linguistics 8(1). 59–94.
Chumakina, Marina, Anne Kibort & Greville G. Corbett. 2007. Determining a language’s feature inventory: Person in Archi. In Peter K. Austin & Andrew Simpson (eds.), Endangered languages (Linguistische Berichte 14), 143–172. Hamburg: Helmut Buske.
Di Garbo, Francesca & Matti Miestamo. 2019. The evolving complexity of gender agreement systems. In Francesca Di Garbo, Bruno Olsson & Bernhard Wälchli (eds.), Grammatical gender and linguistic complexity: Volume II: World-wide comparative studies, 15–60. Berlin: Language Science Press.
Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. 2000. Number marking and noun categorization in Nilo-Saharan languages. Anthropological Linguistics 42(2). 214–261.
Gilley, Leoma. 2013. Katcha noun morphology. In Thilo C. Schadeberg & Roger Blench (eds.), Nuba Mountain language studies, 501–522. Cologne: Köppe.
Grimm, Scott. 2012. Individuation and inverse number marking in Dagaare. In Diane Massam (ed.), Count and mass across languages, 75–98. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Güldemann, Tom. 2018. Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa. In Tom Güldemann (ed.), The languages and linguistics of Africa, 58–444. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
Güldemann, Tom & Jan Junglas. 2018. Gender and number in Kadu with particular reference to Krongo. Paper given at workshop ‘Gender across Niger-Congo’, Humboldt University, Berlin, 29–30 November.
Hyman, Larry M. 2018. More reflections on the nasal classes in Bantu. In John R. Watters (ed.), East Benue-Congo: Nouns, pronouns, and verbs, 223–236. Berlin: Language Science Press.
Jones, Wendell H. & Paula S. Jones. 2019. Bilingual dictionary: Eduria & Jãnerã – English, English – Eduria & Jãnerã. SIL International.
Kafi, Haroun, Nicholas Evans, Matthew Carroll, Rosey Billington, Zurab Baratashvili, Amelia Carter, Kira Davey, Shubo Li, Haoyi Li, Naijing Liu, Keira Mullan, & Harry Power. In prep. A grammar of Kufo. Ms, Australian National University.
. 1986. A preliminary sketch of Kadugli vocabulary. Part 2: Verb and verbal sentences. Sudan Sahel Studies 21. 111–138.
Meakins, Felicity & Rob Pensalfini. 2016. Gender bender: Superclassing in Jingulu gender marking. In Felicity Meakins & Carmel O’Shannessy (eds.), Loss and renewal: Australian languages since colonisation, 425–452. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton.
Meinhof, Carl. 1916–1917. Sprachstudien im egyptischen Sudan 6: Tumtum. Zeitschrift für Kolonialsprachen VII1. 57–63.
Mohamed, Adam Mohamed Adam. 2013. The noun phrase in the Miri language, Nuba Mountains. M.A. Thesis, University of Khartoum.
Mullan, Keira. In prep. Number, person, and gender agreement in Kufa nouns and pronouns. Ms, The Australian National University. In Haroun Kafi, Nicholas Evans, Matthew Carroll, Rosey Billington, Zurab Baratashvili, Amelia Carter, Kira Davey, Shubo Li, Haoyi Li, Naijing Liu, Keira Mullan, & Harry Power. In prep. A grammar of Kufo. Ms, Australian National University.
Reh, Mechtild. 1985. Die Krongo-Sprache (Nìinò Mó-Dì): Beschreibung, Texte, Wörterverzeichnis. Berlin: Dietrich Reimer Verlag.
Seligmann, Brenda Z. 1910–1911. Note on language of the Nubas of Southern Kordofan. Zeitschrift für Kolonialsprachen I1. 167–188.
Stevenson, Roland C. n.d. Dictionary of Katcha. Edited by Roger Blench. [URL]
1956–1957. A survey of the phonetics and grammatical structure of the Nuba mountain languages, with particular reference to Otoro, Katcha and Nyimang. Afrika und Übersee 401. 73–84, 93–115; 411. 27–65, 117–153, 171–196.
Suker, Nada. 2013. Verbal morphology of Miri language. MA thesis, University of Khartoum. [not consulted]
Sutton, Logan. 2014. Kiowa-Tanoan: A synchronic and diachronic study. PhD dissertation, University of New Mexico.
Thelwall, Robin & Thilo C. Schadeberg. 1983. The linguistic settlement of the Nuba mountains. Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika 51. 219–231.
Trager, G. L. 1946. An outline of Taos grammar. In Cornelius Osgood (ed.), Linguistic structures of Native America, 184–221. New York: Viking Fund.
Turner, Darryl J. 2016. Morphosyntax of Katcha nominals: A Dynamic Syntax account. PhD dissertation, University of Edinburgh.
Wheeler, A. 1987. Ganteya Bain: El pueblo Siona del río Putumayo. Bogotá: Instituto Verano de Lingüística. [URL]
