In:Palenquero and Spanish in Contact: Exploring the interface
John M. Lipski
[Contact Language Library 56] 2020
► pp. v–xii
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Published online: 25 March 2020
https://doi.org/10.1075/coll.56.toc
https://doi.org/10.1075/coll.56.toc
Table of contents
Acknowledgmentsxiii
Key to glossesxv
A note on the examplesxvii
Introduction1
Opportunities provided by research into the Palenquero language2
Lexicon2
A grammar within a grammar3
Acquisition of the creole as a second language4
The present study6
Chapter 1.The Palenquero language: History and scholarship9
San Basilio de Palenque: Founding and linguistic history9
Scholarship on the Palenquero language15
Chapter 2.Palenque: Language revitalization and the evolving linguistic ecology19
From scorn to admiration19
Predictions of doom21
Rising from the ashes22
The emergence of metalinguistic awareness and Palenquero “language experts”24
Back to the future: Archaic restoration and “neo-Palenquero” lexical items25
Other challenges to research in Palenque30
Classification of Lengua ri Palenge speakers32
Chapter 3.A brief sketch of Palenquero grammar35
Overview35
Absence of grammatical gender35
Nominal plural marking36
Articles37
Palenquero pronouns38
Subject clitics40
Palenquero complementizers42
Pleonastic lo47
Possession50
Sentential negation50
The Palenquero verbal system51
The extension of -ba to non-verbal elements as a discourse marker59
Lengua ri Palenge pronoun + -ndo as discourse marker68
Pleonastic lo as discourse marker71
Palenquero copular verbs74
The extension of the Palenquero preposition andi76
Chapter 4.Palenquero-Spanish mixing: Previous observations and new data79
Previous observations79
Apparent Palenquero-Spanish mixing: Field data82
Possessive constructions83
Plural marking84
Definite articles84
Negation85
Preverbal object clitics86
Insertion of conjugated verbs88
Monotonic language switches91
Are Palenquero-Spanish mixed utterances true code-switching?94
Chapter 5.Palenqueros’ thoughts: Language identification tasks95
Introduction95
The first experiments: Language-identification96
Method96
Participants97
Materials97
Procedure98
Results and discussion98
Spanish-only stimuli99
Palenquero-only stimuli103
Reactions to stimuli nominally containing both Spanish and Palenquero elements106
Overview106
Conjugated verbs – first person plural in -mo107
Conjugated verbs – first person singular110
Other Spanish-like conjugated verbs113
Preverbal object clitics115
Preverbal negation with no117
Feminine gender agreement118
Palenqueros’ reactions to complete intrasentential language shifts119
Language mixing judgments from a variationist perspective123
A multivariate logistic regression analysis123
Preliminary results125
Discussion of results127
Creating experimental stimuli with synthesized voices129
Creating synthesized stimuli130
Retesting language identification: An experiment with synthesized voices131
Participants131
Procedure and materials131
Results and discussion132
Chapter 6.Palenqueros talk back: Interactive tasks135
Shortcomings of non-interactive language-identification tasks135
Palenqueros and interactive tasks: Elicited repetition136
Close-shadowing: A first approximation136
Participants137
Materials137
Procedure137
Results and discussion138
Strategic omissions, pauses, and backtracking139
Spontaneous intrasentential language shifts during shadowing140
More interactive participation: Speeded acceptability judgment + repetition145
Participants146
Materials146
Procedure147
Results and discussion147
Speeded acceptability task147
Repetition task148
Factors influencing identification of acceptable Lengua ri Palenge149
Another variationist analysis149
Factors influencing judgments of unacceptability (= mixing?)153
Continuing the variationist analysis153
A revised variationist model154
Rapid translation: Another window into language identification157
Method157
Participants157
Materials157
Procedure157
Initial results and discussion160
All-Spanish and all-Palenquero stimuli160
Putatively mixed Palenquero-Spanish stimuli160
Preliminary observations: Cues to language status164
Chapter 7.Palenquero-Spanish mixing and models of language switching167
Palenquero and Spanish mixing167
Why do (some) Palenqueros mix Spanish with Palenquero?170
Why is Palenquero-Spanish mixing accepted as “authentic” lengua ri Palenge?171
Chapter 8.Palenquero as a second language: Data and analyses173
The language “teaching” environment in San Basilio de Palenque173
More observations of young L2 speakers’ lengua ri Palenge174
Data from interviews174
Results from the translation experiment175
Collection of written samples175
Combinations of a and tan, including non-future uses176
Examples from translation task176
Examples of (a) tan from student writings179
Referential null subjects180
Examples from translation task180
Examples in written assignments183
Possessives183
Examples of over-extended si and preposed possessives from translation task184
Examples in written assignments186
Use of the Palenquero plural marker ma as singular187
Use of ma with singular reference in interviews187
Use of ma with singular reference in picture-naming188
Examples from translation task190
Examples in written assignments192
Spanish-like plural marking193
Examples from translation task193
Examples from written assignments194
Definite articles194
Examples from translation task195
Examples from written assignments195
Conjugated verbs196
Examples of conjugated verbs from translation task196
Examples of conjugated verbs from written assignments197
Misuse and misidentification of Palenquero pronouns198
Examples from interviews198
Examples from translation task199
Examples from written assignments200
Feminine gender agreement200
Preverbal negation201
Examples from translation task201
Examples from written assignments202
L2 Palenquero speakers’ processing and production of phrase-final negation203
Results: Translation of Spanish preverbal negator no to Palenquero205
Another experimental examination of Palenquero negative placement207
Participants208
First experiment: Describing differences between pictures208
Materials209
Method209
Results and discussion209
Second experiment: Responding to questions about videos209
Materials209
Method211
Results and discussion211
Overall discussion of negation experiments212
Insertion of key Palenquero lexical items213
Examples from translation task213
Examples from written assignments214
Intertwined intrasentential code-mixing216
A summary of variation: Principal components and discriminant analyses218
Discussion: The future of lengua ri Palenge223
The least proficient Palenquero speakers226
Young heritage Palenquero speakers226
Chapter 9.A window into Palenquero-Spanish bilingualism: Grammatical gender229
Introduction229
Gender agreement: At any cost?229
The representation of grammatical gender230
The possible cost of gender agreement233
Automatization vs. no agreement234
Experiment 1: Picture-describing235
Method236
Participants236
Materials237
Procedure237
Results and discussion237
Experiment 2: Speeded acceptability judgment + repetition238
Results and discussion239
Experiment 3: Number recall + repetition241
Method242
Participants242
Materials242
Procedure242
Results and discussion243
Experiment 4: Speeded translation243
Results: Spanish gender agreement into Palenquero243
Experiment 5: More memory-loaded repetition247
Participants247
Materials247
Procedure248
Results and discussion248
Experiment 6: More close shadowing249
Participants249
Materials249
Procedure249
Results and discussion250
General discussion250
Chapter 10.Conclusions253
Summarizing the results253
Has Palenquero-Spanish mixing been present in San Basilio de Palenque from the outset?253
Is Palenquero-Spanish mixing a sign of decreolization?254
Is Palenquero-Spanish mixing code-switching?256
Palenquero: (Still) an endangered language?256
References259
Appendix ASamples of L2 learners’ written lengua ri Palenge279
Appendix BExamples of written Palenquero in the community291
Appendix CPalenquero consultants309
Index315
