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In:Orality, Identity, and Resistance in Palenque (Colombia): An interdisciplinary approach
Edited by Armin Schwegler, Bryan Kirschen and Graciela Maglia
[Contact Language Library 54] 2017
► pp. 51–119

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Chapter 2
On the African origin(s) of Palenquero

Published online: 19 December 2017
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https://doi.org/10.1075/coll.54.02sch
Abstract
This article examines African influences on Palenquero, a creole language spoken in El Palenque de San Basilio (Colombia). The introduction offers an explanation as to why investigations into the (African) origins of Palenque and its creole have presented special challenges. The study then turns to the reigning hypothesis, according to which Kikongo is the sole substrate of Palenquero. Language-internal data (taken from the lexicon, phonology, and morphosyntax) as well as language-external information are examined to show that these are mutually complementary and confirm Kikongo as the dominant (if not sole) African substrate. Three fundamental conclusions will be reached: (1) Kikongo-speakers must indeed have been a dominant force in the early Palenque (ca. 1670–1725); (2) lacunae in our historical and linguistic knowledge are, however, so great that we should keep a guarded attitude toward the current substrate hypothesis; and (3) there are multiple reasons to be very optimistic about future attempts to refine substratist investigations into the creole. Part of that optimism rests on DNA research (based on comparison of the DNA of Palenqueros and Central West Africans), as well as on an astonishing turnaround of sociolinguistic attitudes in 21st-century Palenque. This turnaround has prompted a rapid re-evaluation and never-before seen appreciation of local Africanisms. At present, this enthusiasm is helping to reveal previously undocumented lexical Africanisms, which may soon shed additional light on Palenqueros’ Subsaharan provenance.
Article outline
  • 0.Introduction
  • 1.Origins of the Palenqueros: Language-external evidence
    • 1.1What is known about Palenque’s early history
    • 1.2What is not known about Palenque’s early history
  • 2.Origins of Palenqueros: Linking language-external evidence with language-internal clues
    • 2.1.Palenque’s African lexicon
      • 2.1.1Palenque’s lexicon today: Revival of Africanisms
      • 2.1.2Palenque’s African lexicon: Is Kikongo its only substrate?
    • 2.2Substratal features in Palenquero phonology
      • 2.2.1Palenquero intonation: A substratal feature?
    • 2.3Substratal features in Palenquero morphosyntax
      • 2.3.1Palenquero morphosyntax: The pluralizer MA
      • 2.3.2Palenquero morphosyntax: Possessive constructions with and without the connector DI ‘of’
      • 2.3.3Palenquero morphosyntax: Pronouns and Person / Number marking
  • 3.Conclusions
  • Acknowledgments
  • Abbreviations
  • Notes
  • References
References (187)
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