In:Exaptation and Language Change
Edited by Muriel Norde and Freek Van de Velde
[Current Issues in Linguistic Theory 336] 2016
► pp. 1–35
Exaptation
Taking stock of a controversial notion in linguistics
Published online: 24 February 2016
https://doi.org/10.1075/cilt.336.01vel
https://doi.org/10.1075/cilt.336.01vel
Article outline
- 1.Introduction
- 2.Exaptation in evolutionary biology
- 3.Exaptation in linguistics
- 3.1On borrowing terms from other disciplines
- 3.2Exaptation in language change
- 3.3Exaptation outside inflectional morphology
- 4.(Alleged) properties of exaptation
- 4.1Unexpectedness of the new function
- 4.2Novelty of the new function
- 4.3Junk status of the input
- 5.Conclusion
Acknowledgements Notes References
References (109)
Andersen, Henning. 2001. “Actualization and the (Uni)directionality of Change”. Actualization: Linguistic change in progress ed. by Henning Andersen (= Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, 219), 225–248. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins. .
. 2010. “From Morphologization to Demorphologization”. The Continuum Companion to Historical Linguistics ed. by Silvia Luraghi & Vit Bubenik, 117–146. London: Continuum.
Audring, Jenny. 2006. “Pronominal Gender in Spoken Dutch”. Journal of Germanic Linguistics 18.85–116.
Beekes, Robert S.P. 2011. Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An introduction. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Beckner, Clay, Richard Blythe, Joan Bybee, Morten H. Christiansen, William Croft, Nick C. Ellis, John Holland, Jinyun Ke, Diane Larsen-Freeman & Tom Schoenemann. 2009. “Language Is a Complex Adaptive System: Position paper”. Language Learning 59: Supplement 1.1–26.
Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad & Edward Finegan. 1999. The Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English. Harlow: Pearson Education.
BNC: The British National Corpus, version 3 (BNC XML Edition). 2007. Distributed by Oxford University Computing Services on behalf of the BNC Consortium. URL: [URL]
Braune, Wilhelm. 1987. Althochdeutsche Grammatik (14. Auflage bearbeitet von Hans Eggers). Tübingen: Max Niemeyer.
Braunmüller, Kurt. 2008. “Observations on the Origins of Definiteness in Ancient Germanic”. Sprachwissenschaft 33.351–371.
Brinton, Laurel J. 2012. “The Ghosts of Old Morphology”. Grammaticalization and Language Change: New reflections ed. by Kristin Davidse, Tine Breban, Lieselotte Brems & Tanja Mortelmans (= Studies in Language Companion Series, 130), 135–166. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Brinton, Laurel J. & Dieter Stein. 1995. “Functional Renewal”. Historical Linguistics 1993: Papers from the 11th International Conference on Historical Linguistics, Los Angeles, 16–20 August 1993 ed. by Henning Andersen (= Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, 124), 33–47. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Bybee, Joan. 2002. “Main Clauses are Innovative, Subordinate Clauses are Conservative: Consequences for the nature of constructions”. Complex sentences in grammar and discourse: essays in honor of Sandra A. Thompson ed. by Joan L. Bybee and Michael Noonan, 1–17. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Bybee, Joan, Revere Perkins & William Pagliuca. 1994. The Evolution of Grammar: Tense, aspect, and modality in the languages of the world.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Carlson, Gregory N. 1977. Reference to Kinds in English. Ph.D. thesis. University of Massachusetts. Amherst.
. In preparation. Explaining Language Change: An evolutionary approach, 2nd ed. (revised). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dal Negro, Silvia. 2004. “Artikelmorphologie: Walserdeutsch im Vergleich zu anderen alemannischen Dialekten”. Alemannisch im Sprachvergleich. Beiträge zur 14. Arbeitstagung für alemannische Dialektologie in Männedorf (Zürich) ed. by Elvira Glaser, Peter Ott & Rudolf Schwarzenbach, 101–111. Stuttgart: Steiner.
Davies, Anna Morpurgo. 1998. Nineteenth-Century Linguistics. (=Giulio Lepschy (ed.) History of Linguistics, 4). London: Longman.
De Cuypere, Ludovic. 2005. “Exploring Exaptation in Language Change”. Folia Linguistica Historica 26.13–26.
De Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste. 1809. Philosophie Zoologique, ou Exposition des Considérations relative à l’Histoire Naturelle des Animaux. Paris: Chez Dentu.
Dennett, Daniel C. 1996. Darwin’s Dangerous Idea: Evolution and the meaning of life. London: Penguin.
De Vos, Lien. 2014. Pronominal Resemanticization in Dutch: A salience-driven redistribution of gender-marked pronouns. PhD Dissertation. ULg. Liège.
Diepeveen, Janneke & Freek Van de Velde. 2010. “Adverbial Morphology: How Dutch and German are moving away from English”. Journal of Germanic Linguistics 22:4.381–402.
Gaeta, Livio. 2004. “Exploring Grammaticalization from Below”. What Makes Grammaticalization? A look from its fringes and its components ed. by Walter Bisang, Nikolaus P. Himmelmann & Björn Wiemer, 45–75. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Giacalone Ramat, Anna. 1998. “Testing the Boundaries of Grammaticalization”. The Limits of Grammaticalization ed. by Anna Giacalone Ramat & Paul J. Hopper (= Typological Studies in Language, 27), 227–270. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Givón, Talmy. 2009. The Genesis of Syntactic Complexity: Diachrony, ontogeny, neuro-cognition, evolution. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins. .
Gould, Stephen J. 1997. “The Exaptive Excellence of Spandrels as a Term and Prototype”.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
94.10750–10755.
Gould, Stephen J. & Richard C. Lewontin. 1979. “The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm: A critique of the adaptationist programme”.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Biology
205.581–598.
Gould, Stephen J. & Elisabeth S. Vrba. 1982. “Exaptation: A missing term in the science of form”. Paleobiology 8:1.4–15.
Greenberg, Joseph. H. 1991. “The Last Stages of Grammatical Elements: Contractive and expansive desemanticization”. Approaches to Grammaticalization Vol. I: Directionality ed. by Elizabeth Closs Traugott & Bernd Heine (= Typological Studies in Language, 19:2), 301–314. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Grimm, Jacob. 1822. Deutsche Grammatik: Erster Theil. Zweite Ausgabe. Göttingen: Dieterichsche Buchhandlung.
Harbert, Wayne. 2007. The Germanic Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Haspelmath, Martin. 1998. “The Semantic Development of Old Presents: New futures and subjunctives without grammaticalization”. Diachronica 15:1.29–62.
Heine, Bernd. 2003. “On Degrammaticalization”. Historical Linguistics 2001: Selected papers from the 15th International Conference on Historical Linguistics, Melbourne, 13–17 August 2001 ed. by Barry J. Blake & Kate Burridge (= Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, 237), 163–179. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Heine, Bernd & Tania Kuteva. 2002. World Lexicon of Grammaticalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hock, Hans Henrich. 1986. Principles of Historical Linguistics. Berlin & New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Hopper, Paul J. 1998. “Emergent Grammar”. The New Psychology of Language: Cognitive and functional approaches to language structure ed. by Michael Tomasello, 155–175. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Hopper, Paul J. & Elizabeth C. Traugott. 2003. Grammaticalization. 2nd edn. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ihalainen, Ossi. 1991. “On Grammatical Diffusion in Somerset Folk Speech”. Dialects of English: Studies in grammatical variation ed. by Peter Trudgill & J.K. Chambers, 104–119. London: Longman.
Jespersen, Otto. 1928. Language: Its nature, origin and development. London: George Allen and Unwin.
Johansson, Sverker. 2005. Origins of Language: Constraints on hypotheses (= Converging Evidence in Language and Communication Research, 5). Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Joseph, Brian D. 2005. “How Accommodating of Change is Grammaticalization? The Case of ‘lateral shifts’”. Logos and Language 6.1–7.
Kaźmierski, Kamil. 2015. “Exaptation and Phonological Change”. Folia Linguistica Historica 36.199–217.
Kroonen, Guus. 2011. The Proto-Germanic N-stems: A study in diachronic morphonology. Amsterdam: Rodopi.
Kuryłowicz, Jerzy. 1975 [1965]. “The evolution of grammatical categories”. Esquisses linguistiques II, J. Kuryłowicz, 38–54. München: Wilhelm Fink.
Kurzová, Helena. 1993. From Indo-European to Latin: The evolution of a morphosyntactic type. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Labov, William. 1994. Principles of Linguistic Change I: Internal factors. Oxford: Blackwell.
Larson, Greger, Philip A. Stephens, Jamshid J. Tehrani & Robert H. Layton. 2013. “Exaptating Exaptation”. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 28:9.497–498.
Lass, Roger. 1990. “How to Do Things with Junk: Exaptation in language evolution”. Journal of Linguistics 26.79–102.
Lehmann, Christian. 2002. Thoughts on Grammaticalization. 2nd edn. Erfurt: Arbeitspapiere des Seminars für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Erfurt.
Lehmann, Winfred P. 1958. “On the Earlier Stages of the Indo-European Nominal Inflection”. Language 34.179–202.
Leuschner, Torsten & Daan Van den Nest. 2015. “Asynchronous Grammaticalization: V1-Conditionals in Present-Day English and German”. Languages in Contrast 15:1.34–64.
Los, Bettelou. 2013. “Recycling ‘Junk’: A case for exaptation as a response to breakdown”. Historical Linguistics 2011: Selected papers from the 20th International Conference on Historical Linguistics, Osaka, 25–30 July 2011 ed. by Ritsuko Kikusawa & Lawrence A. Reid (= Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, 326), 267–288. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Lü, Junchang & Stephen L. Brusatte. 2015. “A Large, Short-Armed, Winged Dromaeosaurid (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from the Early Cretaceous of China and its Implications for Feather Evolution”. Scientific Reports 5:11775. [URL].
McMahon, April & Robert McMahon. 2013. Evolutionary Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Meiser, Gerhard. 1993. “Zur Funktion des Nasalpräsens im Urindogermanischen”. Indogermanica et Italica. Festschrift für Helmut Rix zum 65. Geburtstag ed. by Gerhard Meiser, 280–313. Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck.
Mesoudi, Alex. 2011. Cultural Evolution: How Darwinian theory can explain human culture & synthesize the social sciences. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Narrog, Heiko. 2004. “From Transitive to Causative in Japanese: Morphologization through exaptation”. Diachronica 21:2.351–392.
. 2007. “Exaptation, Grammaticalization, and Reanalysis”. California Linguistic Notes 32:1.
Narrog, Heiko & Bernd Heine. 2011. The Oxford Handbook of Grammaticalization. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Norde, Muriel. 2002. “The Final Stages of Grammaticalization: Affixhood and beyond”. New reflections on grammaticalization ed. by Ilse Wischer & Gabriele Diewald (= Typological Studies in Language, 49), 45–65. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Nübling, Damaris. 2015. “Die Bismarck – der Arena – das Adler: Vom Drei-Genus- zum Sechs-Klassen-System bei Eigennamen im Deutschen: Degrammatikalisierung und Exaptation”. Zeitschrift für Germanistische Linguistik 43:2.307–345.
Philippa, Marlies, Frans Debrabandere, Arend Quak, Tanneke Schoonheim & Nicoline van der Sijs. 2003–2009. Etymologisch Woordenboek van het Nederlands. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
Plank, Frans. 1995. “Entgrammatisierung – Spiegelbild der Grammatisierung?” Natürlichkeitstheorie und Sprachwandel ed. by Norbert Boretzky, et al. , eds., 199–219. Bochum: Universitätsverlag Brockmeyer.
Plevoets, Koen, Dik Speelman & Dirk Geeraerts. 2009. “De Verspreiding van de -E(n)-Uitgang in Attributieve Positie”. Taal en Tongval Themanummer 22.111–142.
Prokosch, Edward. 1939. A Comparative Germanic Grammar. Philadelphia: Linguistic Society of America.
Ritt, Nikolaus. 2004. Selfish Sounds: A Darwinian approach to language change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rohdenburg, Günter. 1998. “Zur Umfunktionierung von Kasusoppositionen für referentielle Unterscheidungen bei Pronomen und Substantiven im Nordniederdeutschen”. Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik 64:3.293–300.
Simon, Horst. 2010. “‘Exaptation’ in der Sprachwandeltheorie: eine Begriffspräzisierung”. Prozesse sprachlicher Verstärkung: Typen formaler Resegmentierung und semantischer Remotivierung ed. by Rüdiger Harnisch, 41–57. Berlin & New York: Mouton De Gruyter.
Smith, John-Charles. 2006. “How to Do Things without Junk: The refunctionalization of a pronominal subsystem between Latin and Romance”. New perspectives on Romance linguistics. Volume II: Phonetics, phonology and dialectology ed. by Jean-Pierre Montreuil (= Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, 276), 183–205. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
. 2011. “Change and Continuity in Form–Function Relationships”. The Cambridge History of the Romance Languages ed. by Martin Maiden, John-Charles Smith & Adam Ledgeway, 268–317. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Spector, Tim. 2012. Identically Different: Why you can change your genes. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
Tobin, Yishai. 1999. “Till versus until: A sign-oriented approach”. Semiotique Applique / Applied Semiotics 8.426–436.
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs. 1982. “From Propositional to Textual and Expressive Meanings: Some semantic-pragmatic aspects of grammaticalization”. Perspectives on Historical Linguistics ed. by Winfred P. Lehmann & Yakov Malkiel (= Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, 24), 245–271. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
. 2004. “Exaptation and Grammaticalization”. Linguistic Studies Based on Corpora ed. by Minoji Akimoto, 133–156. Tokyo: Hituzi Syobo.
Traugott, Elizabeth Closs & Richard B. Dasher. 2002. Regularity in Semantic Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tria, F., V. Loreto, V.D.P. Servedio & S.H. Strogatz. 2014. “The Dynamics of Correlated Novelties”. Scientific Reports 4.58–90.
Van der Auwera, Johan. 2010. “On the Diachrony of Negation”. The Expression of Negation ed. by Laurence Horn, 73–109. Berlin & New York: Mouton De Gruyer.
. 2012. “Wat het Nederlands ons kan Leren over de Jespersencyclus”. Nederlandse Taalkunde 17.403–413.
Van der Horst, Johannes M. 2008. Geschiedenis van de Nederlandse Syntaxis. Leuven: Leuven University Press.
Van der Horst, Johannes M. & Marijke J. van der Wal. 1979. “Negatieverschijnselen en Woordvolgorde in de Geschiedenis van het Nederlands”. Tijdschrift voor Nederlandse Taal- en Letterkunde 95.6–37.
Van de Velde, Freek. 2005. “Exaptatie en Subjectificatie in de Nederlandse Adverbiale Morfologie”. Handelingen der Koninklijke Zuid-Nederlandse Maatschappij voor Taal- en Letterkunde en Geschiedenis 58.105–124.
. 2006. “Herhaalde Exaptatie: Een diachrone analyse van de Germaanse adjectiefflexie”. Nederlands tussen Duits en Engels ed. by Matthias Hüning, Arie Verhagen, Ulrike Vogl & Ton van der Wouden, 47–69. Leiden: Stichting Neerlandistiek Leiden.
. 2014. “Degeneracy: The maintenance of constructional networks”. The Extending Scope of Construction Grammar ed. by Ronny Boogaart, Timothy Colleman & Gijsbert Rutten, 141–179. Berlin & New York: Mouton De Gruyter.
Van de Velde, Freek, Petra Sleeman & Harry Perridon. 2014. “The Adjective in Germanic and Romance: Development, differences and similarities”. Adjectives in Germanic and Romance ed. by Petra Sleeman, Freek Van de Velde & Harry Perridon (= Linguistik Aktuell / Linguistics Today, 212), 1–32. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Van de Velde, Freek & Fred Weerman. 2014. “The Resilient Nature of Adjectival Inflection in Dutch”. Adjectives in Germanic and Romance ed. by Petra Sleeman, Freek Van de Velde & Harry Perridon (= Linguistik Aktuell / Linguistics Today, 212), 113–145. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Van Marle, Jaap. 1995. “On the Fate of Adjectival Inflection in Oversees Dutch”. Historical Linguistics 1993: Papers from the 11th International Conference on Historical Linguistics, Los Angeles, 16–20 August 1993 ed. by Henning Andersen (= Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, 124), 283–294. Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Vincent, Nigel. 1995. “Exaptation and Grammaticalization”. Historical Linguistics 1993: Papers from the 11th International Conference on Historical Linguistics, Los Angeles, 16–20 August 1993 ed. by Henning Andersen (= Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, 124), 433–445. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Wagner, Susanne. 2005. “Gender in English Pronouns: Southwest England. A Comparative Grammar of British English dialects: Agreement, gender, relative clauses ed. by Bernd Kortmann, Tanja Hermann, Lukas Pietsch & Susanne Wagner, 211–367. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Warner, Anthony. 2007. “Parameters of Variation between Verb-Subject and Subject-Verb Order in Late Middle English”. English Language and Linguistics 11.81–111.
Willis, David. 2010. “Degrammaticalization and Obsolescent Morphology: Evidence from Slavonic”. Grammaticalization: Current views and issues ed. by Ekaterini Stathi, Elke Gehweiler & Ekkehard König (= Studies in Language Companion Series, 119), 151–178. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Cited by (54)
Cited by 54 other publications
Bausman, William C. & Marcel Weber
Nijs, Julie & Freek Van de Velde
2023. Resemanticising ‘free’ variation. In Free Variation in Grammar [Studies in Language Companion Series, 234], ► pp. 229 ff.
Pérez-Guerra, Javier
2022. Determinants of exaptation in Verb-Object predicates in the transition from Late Middle English to Early Modern English. In Broadening the Spectrum of Corpus Linguistics [Studies in Corpus Linguistics, 105], ► pp. 133 ff.
Beaver, David & Kristin Denlinger
Bohn, Manuel, Josep Call & Christoph J. Völter
Breitbarth, Anne
Christensen, Ken Ramshøj
de Swart, Henriëtte
Dwivedi, Veena D.
Fleisher, Nicholas
Francis, Naomi & Sabine Iatridou
Giannakidou, Anastasia
Gianollo, Chiara
Gianollo, Chiara
Grodzinsky, Yosef, Virginia Jaichenco, Isabelle Deschamps, María Elina Sánchez, Martín Fuchs, Peter Pieperhoff, Yonatan Loewenstein & Katrin Amunts
Hochmann, Jean-Rémy
Kaup, Barbara & Carolin Dudschig
Larrivée, Pierre
Mayr, Clemens
Muller, Hanna & Colin Phillips
Nübling, Damaris
2020.
Die Capital – der Astra – das Adler
. In Walking on the grammaticalization path of the definite article [Studies in Language Variation, 23], ► pp. 227 ff.
Papeo, Liuba & Manuel de Vega
Pearce, Elizabeth
Poletto, Cecilia
Prieto, Pilar & M. Teresa Espinal
Quer, Josep
Romero, Maribel
Sánchez, Liliana & Jennifer Austin
Thornton, Rosalind
Tortora, Christina & Frances Blanchette
Tubau, Susagna
van der Auwera, Johan & Olga Krasnoukhova
Wallage, Phillip
Ackermann, Tanja
2019. Possessive -s in German. In Morphological Variation [Studies in Language Companion Series, 207], ► pp. 27 ff.
Joseph, Brian D.
2016. Being exacting about exapting. In Exaptation and Language Change [Current Issues in Linguistic Theory, 336], ► pp. 37 ff.
This list is based on CrossRef data as of 15 november 2025. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.
