In:Writing Systems, Reading Processes, and Cross-Linguistic Influences: Reflections from the Chinese, Japanese and Korean Languages
Edited by Hye K. Pae
[Bilingual Processing and Acquisition 7] 2018
► pp. 137–162
Chapter 7Brain mechanisms of Chinese word reading
Published online: 10 July 2018
https://doi.org/10.1075/bpa.7.07cao
https://doi.org/10.1075/bpa.7.07cao
Abstract
Research on Chinese reading provides important insights into the understanding of language-universal and script-specific mechanisms of reading, because Chinese is contrastively different from alphabetic languages. In this chapter, I will first summarize neuroimaging findings of Chinese word reading in adults in comparison to English word reading. Then, I will discuss how the brain adapts to one’s language with learning and development. Then, I will focus on the topic of second language learning, including how one brain processes Chinese and English in bilinguals, how first language influences second language learning, and whether there are different optimal learning methods for different second languages. This chapter will address these important questions based on neuroimaging studies.
Keywords: Chinese, fMRI, bilingual, development, learning, specialization
Article outline
- Introduction
- Cross-linguistic differences in the brain network engaged in reading
- The cross-linguistic difference in brain activation increases with development
- Reduced neural specialization in children with low reading proficiency
- Neural specialization during bilingual processing
- How native language influences second language learning
- How learning a second language affects L1 processing
- Appropriate learning methods facilitate neural specialization
- Phonological learning helps lexical learning only in alphabetic but not non-alphabetic language
- Orthographic learning is helpful in non-alphabetic lexical learning
- Orthographic learning is also helpful in alphabetic lexical learning
- The interaction between learning method and language
- Why does writing help reading?
- Conclusion
References
References (134)
Anthony, J. L., Lonigan, C. J., Driscoll, K., Phillips, B. M., & Burgess, S. R. (2003). Phonological sensitivity: A quasi-parallel progression of word structure units and cognitive operations. Reading Research Quarterly, 38, 470–487.
Aylward, E. H., Richards, T. L., Berninger, V. W., Nagy, W. E., Field, K. M., Grimme, A. C., Richards, A. L., Thomson, J. B., & Cramer, S. C. (2003). Instructional treatment associated with changes in brain activation in children with dyslexia. Neurology, 61(2), 212–219.
Berninger, V. W., Lee, Y. L., Abbott, R. D., & Breznitz, Z. (2013). Teaching children with dyslexia to spell in a reading-writers’ workshop. Annals of Dyslexia, 63(1), 1–24.
Berninger, V. W., Winn, W. D., Stock, P., Abbott, R.D., Eschen, K., Lin, S. J., Garcia, N., Anderson-Youngstrom, M., Murphy, H., Lovitt, D., Trivedi, P., Jones, J., Amtmann, D., & Nagy, W. (2008). Tier 3 specialized writing instruction for students with dyslexia. Reading and Writing, 21, 95–129.
Bolger, D., Hornickel, J., Cone, N., Burman, D., & Booth, J. (2008). Neural correlates of orthographic and phonological consistency effects in children. Human Brain Mapping, 29, 1416–1429.
Bolger, D. J., Perfetti, C. A., & Schneider, W. (2005). Cross-cultural effect on the brain revisited: Universal structures plus writing system variation. Human Brain Mapping, 25(1), 92–104.
Booth, J. R., Burman, D. D., Meyer, J. R., Gitelman, D. R., Parrish, T. R., & Mesulam, M. M. (2002). Functional anatomy of intra- and cross-modal lexical tasks. NeuroImage, 16, 7–22.
(2003). The relation between brain activation and lexical performance. Human Brain Mapping, 19, 155–169.
Booth, J. R., Burman, D. D., Meyer, J. R., Trommer, B. L., Davenport, N., Parrish, T. R., Gitelman, D. R., & Mesulam, M. M. (2004). Brain-behavior correlation in children depends on the neuro-cognitive network. Human Brain Mapping, 23, 99–108.
Booth, J. R., Burman, D. D., Meyer, J. R., Zhang, L., Choy, J., Gitelman, D. R., Parrish, T. R. & Mesulam, M. M. (2003). Modality-specific and -independent developmental differences in the neural substrate for lexical processing. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 16, 383–405.
Booth, J. R., Burman, D. D., Meyer, J. R., Zhang, L.,, Gitelman, D. R., Parrish, T. R. & Mesulam, M. M. (2004). Development of brain mechanisms for processing orthographic and phonological representations. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 16, 1234–1249.
Bradley, L. (1981). The organisation of motor patterns for spelling: An effective remedial strategy for backward readers. Develop Med Child Neurol, 23, 83–91.
Bradley, L., & Bryant, P. E. (1983). Categorizing sounds and learning to read-a causal connection. Nature, 301, 419–421.
Brennan, C., Cao, F., Pedroarena-Leal, N., McNorgan, C. & Booth, J. R. (2013). Reading acquisition reorganizes the phonological awareness network only in alphabetic writing systems. Hum Brain Mapp, 34(12), 3354–3368.
Broom, Y. M., & Doctor, E. A. (1995). Developmental surface dyslexia: A case study of the efficacy of a remediation programme. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 12, 69–110.
Byrne, B., & Fielding-Barnsley, R. (1989). Phonemic awareness and letter knowledge in the childʹs acquisition of the alphabetic principle. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 313–321.
Byrne, B., Freebody, P., & Gates, A. (1992). Longitudinal data on the relations of word-reading strategies to comprehension, reading time, and phonemic awareness. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 140–151.
Cao, F., Bitan, T., Chou, T. L., Burman, D. D., & Booth, J. R. (2006). Deficient orthographic and phonological representations in children with dyslexia revealed by brain activation patterns. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 47(10), 1041–1050.
Cao, F., Brennan, C., & Booth, J. R. (2015). The brain adapts to orthography with experience: Evidence from English and Chinese. Dev Sci, 18(5), 785–798.
Cao, F., Khalid, K., Lee, R., Brennan, C., Yang, Y., Li, K., Bolger, D. J., & Booth, J. R. (2011). Development of brain networks involved in spoken word processing of Mandarin Chinese. Neuroimage, 57(3), 750–759.
Cao, F., Kim, S. Y., Liu, Y., & Liu, L. (2014). Similarities and differences in brain activation and functional connectivity in first and second language reading: Evidence from Chinese learners of English. Neuropsychologia, 63, 275–284.
Cao, F., Lee, R., Shu, H., Yang, Y., Xu, G., Li, K., & Booth, J. R. (2010). Cultural constraints on brain development: Evidence from a developmental study of visual word processing in Mandarin Chinese. Cereb Cortex, 20(5), 1223–1233.
Cao, F., Peng, D., Liu, L., Jin, Z., Fan, N., Deng, Y., & Booth, J. R. (2009). Developmental differences of neurocognitive networks for phonological and semantic processing in Chinese word reading. Human Brain Mapping, 30(3), 797–809.
Cao, F., Rickles, B., Vu, M., Zhu, Z., Chan, D. H., Harris, L. N., Stafura, Xu, Y., & Perfetti, C. A. (2013). Early stage visual-orthographic processes predict long-term retention of word form and meaning: A visual encoding training study. J Neurolinguistics 26(4), 440–461.
Cao, F., Sussman, B., Rios, V., Yan, X., Spray, G., Wang, Z., & Mack, R. (in press). Different brain mechanisms involved in learning different L2s: Evidence from native English speakers learning Spanish and Chinese. Neuroimage.
Cao, F., Tao, R., Liu, L., Perfetti, C. A., & Booth, J. R. (2013). High proficiency in a second language is characterized by greater involvement of the first language network: Evidence from Chinese learners of English. J Cogn Neurosci, 25(10), 1649–1663.
Cao, F., Vu, M., Chan, D. H., Lawrence, J. M., Harris, L. N., Guan, Q., Xu, Y., & Perfetti, C. A. (2013). Writing affects the brain network of reading in Chinese: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Human Brain Mapping, 34(7), 1670–1684.
Cao, F., Yan, X., Wang, Z., Liu, Y., Wang, J., Spray, G., & Deng, Y. (2017). Neural signatures of phonological deficits in developmental dyslexia. NeuroImage.
Chee, M. W., Caplan, D., Soon, C. S., Sriram, N., Tan, E. W., Thiel, T., & Weekes, B. (1999). Processing of visually presented sentences in Mandarin and English studied with fMRI. Neuron, 23(1): 127–137.
Chen, Y., Fu, S., Iversen, S. D., Smith, S. M., & Matthews, P. M. (2002). Testing for dual brain processing routes in reading: A direct contrast of chinese character and pinyin reading using FMRI. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14(7): 1088–1098.
Coltheart, M., Curtis, B., Atkins, P., & Haller, M. (1993). Models of reading aloud: Dual route and parallel distributed processing approaches. Psychological Review, 100, 589–608.
Coltheart, M., Rastle, K., Perry, C., Langdon, C., & Ziegler, J. (2001). DRC: A dual route cascaded model of visual word recognition and reading aloud. Psychological Review, 108(1), 204–256.
Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1990). Assessing print exposure and orthographic processing skill in children: A quick measure of reading experience. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 733–740.
De Gelder, B. V., & Vroomen, J. (1992). Auditory and visual speech perception in alphabetic and nonalphabetic Chinese-Dutch bilinguals. In R. J. Harris (Ed.), Cognitive processing in bilinguals (pp. 413–426). Amsterdam: North-Holland.
Dehaene, S., Pegado, F., Braga, L. W., Ventura, P., Nunes Filho, G., Jobert, A., Dehaene-Lambertz, G., Kolinsky, R., Morais, J., & Cohen, L. (2010). How learning to read changes the cortical networks for vision and language. Science, 330(6009): 1359–1364.
Eden, G. F., Jones, K. M., Cappell, K., Gareau, L., Wood, F. B., Zeffiro, T. A., Dietz, N. A., Agnew, J. A., & Flowers, D. L. (2004). Neural changes following remediation in adult developmental dyslexia. Neuron, 44(3), 411–422.
Ehri, L. C., Nunes, S. R., Willows, D. A., Schuster, B. V., Yaghoub-Zadeh, Z., & Shanahan, T. (2001). Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panelʹs metanalaysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36, 250–287.
Fiez, J. A., & Petersen, S. E. (1998). Neuroimaging studies of word reading. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 95(3), 914–21.
Frith, U. (1986). A developmental framework for developmental dyslexia. Annals of Dyslexia, 36, 69–81.
Gebauer, D., Fink, A., Kargl, R., Reishofer, G., Koschutnig, K., Purgstaller, C., Fazekas, F., & Enzinger, C. (2012). Differences in brain function and changes with intervention in children with poor spelling and reading abilities. PLoS One, 7(5): e38201.
Gillingham, A., & Stillman, B. W. (1956). Remedial training for children with specific disability in reading, spelling and penmanship (5th ed.). Cambridge, MA: Educators Publishing Service.
Guan, Q., Liu, Y., Chan, H., & Perfetti, C. A. (2011). Writing strengthens orthography and alphabetic-coding strengthens phonology in learning to read Chinese. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103(3): 509–522.
Gustafson, S., Ferreira, J., & Ronnberg, J. (2007). Phonological or orthographic training for children with phonological or orthographic decoding deficits. Dyslexia, 13(3), 211–229.
Hu, W., Lee, H. L., Zhang, Q., Liu, T., Geng, L. B., Seghier, M. L., Shakeshaft, C., Twomey, T., Green, D. W., Yang, W. M., & Price, C. J. (2010). Developmental dyslexia in Chinese and English populations: Dissociating the effect of dyslexia from language differences. Brain, 133(Pt 6), 1694–1706.
Jamal, N. I., Piche, A. W., Napoliello, E. M., Perfetti, C. A., & Eden, G. F. (2012). Neural basis of single-word reading in Spanish-English bilinguals. Human Brain Mapping, 33(1), 235–245.
James, K. H. (2010). Sensori-motor experience leads to changes in visual processing in the developing brain. Dev Sci, 13(2), 279–288.
James, K. H., & Atwood, T. P. (2009). The role of sensorimotor learning in the perception of letter-like forms: Tracking the causes of neural specialization for letters. Cogn Neuropsychol, 26(1), 91–110.
James, K. H., & Gauthier, I. (2006). Letter processing automatically recruits a sensory-motor brain network. Neuropsychologia, 44(14), 2937–2949.
Jeong, H., Sugiura, M., Sassa, Y., Yokoyama, A., Horie, K., Sato, S., Taira, M., & Kawashima, R. (2007). Cross-linguistic influence on brain activation during second language processing: An fMRI study. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 10(2), 175–187.
Jobard, G., Crivello, F., & Tzourio-Mazoyer, N. (2003). Evaluation of the dual route theory of reading: A metanalysis of 35 neuroimaging studies. Neuroimage, 20(2), 693–712.
Johnson, M. H. (2011). Interactive specialization: A domain-general framework for human functional brain development? Dev Cogn Neurosci, 1(1), 7–21.
Kaushanskaya, M., Yoo J., & Marian, V. (2011). The effect of second-language experience on native-language processing. Vigo Int J Appl Linguist, 8, 54–77.
Keller, T. A., & Just, M. A. (2009). Altering cortical connectivity: Remediation-induced changes in the white matter of poor readers. Neuron, 64(5), 624–631.
Kim, S. Y., Liu, L., & Cao, F. (2017). “How does first language (L1) influence second language (L2) reading in the brain? Evidence from Korean-English and Chinese-English bilinguals.”Brain Lang 171: 1–13.
Kim, S. Y., Qi, T., Feng, X., Ding, G., Liu, L., & Cao (2016). How does language distance between L1 and L2 affect the L2 brain network? An fMRI study of Korean-Chinese-English trilinguals. Neuroimage, 129, 25–39.
Kita, Y., Yamamoto, H., Oba, K., Terasawa, Y., Moriguchi, Y., Uchiyama, H., Seki, A., Koeda, T., & Inagaki, M. (2013). Altered brain activity for phonological manipulation in dyslexic Japanese children. Brain, 136(Pt 12), 3696–3708.
Koyama, M. S., Stein, J. F., Stoodley, C. J., & Hansen, P. C. (2011). Functional MRI evidence for the importance of visual short-term memory in logographic reading. Eur J Neurosci, 33(3), 539–548.
Kumar, U. (2014). Effect of orthography over neural regions in bilinguals: A view from neuroimaging. Neurosci Lett, 580C, 94–99.
Liu, H., & Cao, F. (2016). L1 and L2 processing in the bilingual brain: A meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies. Brain Lang, 159, 60–73.
Liu, L., Wang, W., You, W., Li, Y., Awati, N., Zhao, X., Booth, J. R., & Peng, D. (2012). Similar alterations in brain function for phonological and semantic processing to visual characters in Chinese dyslexia. Neuropsychologia, 50(9), 2224–2232.
Longcamp, M., Anton, J. L., Roth, M., & Velay, J. L. (2003). Visual presentation of single letters activates a premotor area involved in writing. Neuroimage, 19(4), 1492–1500.
Longcamp, M., Zerbato-Poudou, M. T., & Velay, J. L. (2005). The influence of writing practice on letter recognition in preschool children: A comparison between handwriting and typing. Acta Psychol (Amst), 119(1), 67–79.
Luke, K. K., Liu, H. L., Wai, Y. Y., Wan, Y. L., & Tan, L. H. (2002). Functional anatomy of syntactic and semantic processing in language comprehension. Human Brain Mapping, 16, 133–145.
McBride-Chang, C., Cho, J., Liu, H., Wagner, R., Shu, H., Zhou, A., Cheuk, C., & Muse, A. (2005). Changing models across cultures: Associations of phonological awareness and morphological structure awareness with vocabulary and word recognition in second graders from Beijing, Hong Kong, Korea, and the United States. J Exp Child Psychol, 92(2), 140–160.
McBride-Chang, C., Chow, B. W.-Y., Zhong, Y.-P., Burgess, S., & Hayward, W. (2005). Chinese character acquisition and visual skills in two Chinese scripts. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 18, 99–128.
McBride-Chang, C., & Kail, R. V. (2002). Cross-cultural similarities in the predictors of reading acquisition. Child Development, 73(5), 1392–1407.
Mei, L., Xue, G., Lu, Z. L., Chen, C., Wei, M., He, Q., & Dong, Q. (2015). Long-term experience with Chinese language shapes the fusiform asymmetry of English reading. Neuroimage, 110, 3–10.
Mei, L., Xue, G., Lu, Z. L., He, Q., Wei, M., Zhang, M., Dong, Q., & Chen, C. (2015). Native language experience shapes neural basis of addressed and assembled phonologies. Neuroimage, 114, 38–48.
Mei, L., Xue, G., Lu, Z. L., He, Q., Zhang, M., Wei, M., Xue, F., Chen, C., & Dong, Q. (2014). Artificial language training reveals the neural substrates underlying addressed and assembled phonologies. PLoS One, 9(3), e93548.
Mei, L., Xue, G., Lu, Z. L., He, Q., Zhang, M., Xue, F., Chen, C., & Dong, Q. (2013). Orthographic transparency modulates the functional asymmetry in the fusiform cortex: An artificial language training study. Brain Lang, 125(2), 165–172.
Muter, V., Hulme, C., Snowling, M., & Taylor, S. (1997). Segmentation, not rhyming, predicts early progress in learning to read. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 65, 370–396.
(1998). Segmentation, not rhyming, predicts early progress in learning to read. J Exp Child Psychol, 71(1), 3–27.
Naka , M. (1998). Repeated writing facilitates childrenʹs memory for pseudocharacters and foreign letters. Mem Cognit, 26(4), 804–809.
Nelson, J. R., Liu, Y., Fiez, J., & Perfetti, C. A. (2009). Assimilation and accommodation patterns in ventral occipitotemporal cortex in learning a second writing system. Human Brain Mapping, 30(3), 810–820.
O’Brien, B. A., Wolf, M., Miller, L. T., Lovett, M. W., & Morris, R. (2011). Orthographic processing efficiency in developmental dyslexia: An investigation of age and treatment factors at the sublexical level. Ann Dyslexia, 61(1), 111–135.
Olson, R. K., Wise, B., Johnson, M. C., & Ring, J. (1997). The etiology and remediation of phonologically based word recognition and spelling disabilities: Are phonological deficits the “hole” story? In B. Blackman (Ed.), Foundations of reading acquisition and dyslexia (pp. 305–316). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Pak, A., Cheng-Lai, A., Tso, I., Shu, H., Li, W., & Anderson, R. C. (2005). Visual chunking skills of Hong Kong children. Reading and Writing, 18(5), 437–454.
Paulesu, E., Demonet, J. F., Fazio, F., McCrory, E., Chanoine, V., Brunswick, N., Cappa, S. F., Cossu, G., Habib, M., Frith, C. D., & Frith, U. (2001). Dyslexia: Cultural diversity and biological unity. Science, 291, 2165–2167.
Paulesu, E., McCrory, E, Fazio, F, Menoncello, L., Brunswick, N., Cappa, S. F., Cotelli, M., Cossu, G., Corte, F., Lorusso, M., Pesenti, S., Gallagher, A., Perani, D., Price, C., Frith, C. D., & Frith, U. (2000). A cultural effect on brain function. Nature Neuroscience, 3(1), 91–96.
Peng, D., Guo, D. J., Zhang, S. L. (1985). Access to the lexical information of Chinese characters during semantic judgment. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 3, 227–233.
Pennington, B. F., & Lefly, D. L. (2001). Early reading development in children at family risk for dyslexia. Child Development, 72(3), 816–833.
Perfetti, C. A. (1984). Reading acquisition and beyond: Decoding includes cognition. American Journal of Education, 93, 40–60.
Perfetti, C. A., & Liu, Y. (2005). Orthography to phonology and meaning: Comparisons across and within writing systems. Reading and Writing, 18, 193–210.
Perfetti, C. A., Liu, Y., Fiez, J., Nelson, J., Bolger, D. J., & Tan, L.-H. (2007). Reading in two writing systems: Accommodation and assimilation in the brain’s reading network. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 10(2), 131–146.
Perfetti, C. A., Liu, Y., & Tan, L. H. (2005). The lexical constituency model: Some implications of research on Chinese for general theories of reading. Psychological Review, 112(1), 43–59.
Perre, L., & Ziegler, J. C. (2008). On-line activation of orthography in spoken word recognition. Brain Res, 1188, 132–138.
Piaget, J. (1983). Piagetʹs theory. In P. Mussen (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (4th ed.). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
Pugh, K. R., Mencl, W. E., Jenner, A. R., Katz, L., Frost, S. J., Lee,, J. R., Shaywitz, S. E., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2000). Functional neuroimaging studies of reading and reading disability (developmental dyslexia). Mental Retardation & Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 6(3), 207–213.
Rack, J. P., Snowling, M. J., & Olson, R. K. (1992). The nonword reading deficit in developmental dyslexia: A review. Reading Research Quarterly, 27(1), 28–53.
Ramus, F. (2014). Neuroimaging sheds new light on the phonological deficit in dyslexia. Trends Cogn Sci, 18(6), 275–275.
Rayner, K., Foorman, B. R., Perfetti, C. A., Pesetsky, D., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2001). How psychological science informs the teaching of reading. Psychological Science, 2(2 Suppl), 31–74.
Rumsey, J. M., Nace, K., Donohue, B., Wise, D., Maisog, J. M., & Andreason, P. (1997). A positron emission tomographic study of impaired word recognition and phonological processing in dyslexic men. Arch Neurol, 54(5), 562–573.
Schulz, E., Maurer, U., van der Mark, S., Bucher, K., Brem, S., Martin, E., & Brandeis, M. (2009). Reading for meaning in dyslexic and young children: Distinct neural pathways but common endpoints. Neuropsychologia, 47(12), 2544–2557.
Seki, K., Yajima, M., & Sugishita, M. (1995). The efficacy of kinesthetic reading treatment for pure alexia. Neuropsychologia, 33(5), 595–609.
Shankweiler, D., Crain, S., Brady, S., & Macaruso, P. (1992). Identifying the causes of reading disability. In P. B. Gough & L. C. Ehri (Eds.), Reading acquisition (pp. 275-305). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Shankweiler, D., Crain, S., Katz, L., & Fowler, A. E. (1995). Cognitive profiles of reading-disabled children: Comparison of language skills in phonology, morphology, and syntax. Psychological Science, 6(3), 149–156.
Shaywitz, B., Shaywitz, S., Blackman, B., Pugh, K. R., Fulbright, R. K., Skudlarski, P., Mencl, E., Constable, R. T., Holahan, J. M., Marchione, K. E., Fletcher, J. M., Lyon, R., & Gore, J. C. (2004). Development of left occipitotemporal systems for skilled reading in children after a phonologically-based intervention. Biological Psychiatry, 55, 926–933.
Shaywitz, B. A., Skudlarski, P., Holahan, J. M., Marchione, K. E., Constable, R. T., Fulbright, R. K., Zelterman, D., Lacadie, C., & Shaywitz, S. E. (2007). Age-related changes in reading systems of dyslexic children. Ann Neurol, 61(4), 363–370.
Shaywitz, S. E., Shaywitz, B. A., Pugh, K. R., Fulbright, R. K., Constable, R. T., Mencl, W. E., Shankweiler, D. P., Liberman, A. M., Skudlarski, P., Fletcher, J. M., Katz, L., Marchione, K. E., Lacadie, C., Gatenby, C., & Gore, J. C. (1998). Functional disruption in the organization of the brain for reading in dyslexia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 95(5), 2636–2641.
Simos, P. G., Fletcher, J. M., Bergman, E., Breier, J. I., Foorman, B. R., Castillo, E. M., Davis, R. N., Fitzgerald, M., & Papanicolaou, A. C. (2002). Dyslexia-specific brain activation profile becomes normal following successful remedial training. Neurology, 58(8), 1203–1213.
Simos, P. G., Fletcher, J. M., Denton, C., Sarkari, S., Billingsley-Marshall, R., & Papanicolaou, A. C. (2006). Magnetic source imaging studies of dyslexia interventions. Developmental Neuropsychology, 30(1), 591–611.
Siok, W. T., & Fletcher, P. (2001). The role of phonological awareness and visual-orthographic skills in Chinese reading acquisition. Developmental Psychology, 37(6), 886–899.
Siok, W. T., Perfetti, C. A., Jin, Z., & Tan, L. H. (2004). Biological abnormality of impaired reading is constrained by culture. Nature, 431, 71–76.
Siok, W. T., Spinks, J. A., Jin, Z., & Tan, L. H. (2009). Developmental dyslexia is characterized by the co-existence of visuospatial and phonological disorders in Chinese children. Curr Biol, 19(19), R890–892.
Snowling, M. J., Goulandris, N., Bowlby, M., & Howell, P. (1986). Segmentation and speech perception in relation to reading skill: A developmental analysis. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 41(3), 489–507.
Snowling, M. J. (1980). The development of grapheme-phoneme correspondence in normal and dyslexic readers. J Exp Child Psychol, 29(2), 294–305.
Snowling, M. J., & Hulme, C. (2011). Evidence-based interventions for reading and language difficulties: Creating a virtuous circle. Br J Educ Psychol, 81(Pt 1), 1–23.
Song, H., Zhang, H. C., & Shu, H. (1995). Developmental changes in functions of orthography and phonology in Chinese reading. Acta Psychologica Sinica, 2, 139–144.
Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (1989). Exposure to print and orthographic processing. Reading Research Quarterly, 24, 402–433.
Tan, L. H., Feng, C. M., Fox, P. T., & Gao, J.-H. (2001). An fMRI study with written Chinese. Neuroreport: an International Journal for the Rapid Communication of Research in Neuroscience, 12(1), 83–88.
Tan, L. H., Laird, A. R., Karl, L., & Fox, P. T. (2005). Neuroanatomical correlates of phonological processing of Chinese characters and alphabetic words: A meta-analysis. Human Brain Mapping, 25, 83–91.
Tan, L. H., Liu, H. L., Perfetti, C. A., Spinks, J. A., Fox, P. T., & Gao, J. H. (2001). The neural system underlying Chinese logograph reading. Neuroimage 13(5), 836–846.
Tan, L. H., & Perfetti, C. A. (1997). Visual Chinese character recognition: Does phonological information mediate access to meaning? Journal of Memory and Language, 37, 41–57.
Tan, L. H., Spinks, J. A., Eden, G. F., Perfetti, C. A., & Siok, W. T. (2005). Reading depends on writing, in Chinese. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102, 8781–8785.
Tan, L. H., Spinks, J. A., Feng, C. M., Siok, W. T., Perfetti, C. A., Xiong, J., Fox, P. T., Gao, J. H., & Kalogirou, E. (2003). Neural systems of second language reading are shaped by native language. Human Brain Mapping, 18(3), 158–166.
Tan, L. H., Spinks, J. A., Gao, J. H., Liu, H. L., Perfetti, C. A., Xiong, J., Stofer, K. A., Pu, Y., Liu, Y., & Fox, P. T. (2000). Brain activation in the processing of Chinese characters and words: A functional MRI study. Human Brain Mapping, 10(1), 16–27.
Tanaka, H., Black, J. M., Hulme, C., Stanley, L. M., Kesler, S. R., Whitfield-Gabrieli, R., Reiss, A. L., Gabrieli, J. D., & Hoeft, F. (2011). The brain basis of the phonological deficit in dyslexia is independent of IQ. Psychol Sci, 22(11), 1442–1451.
Thomson, M. E. (1991). The teaching of spelling using techniques of simultaneous oral spelling and visual inspection. London: Whurr.
Tokunaga, H., Nishikawa, T., Ikejiri, Y., Nakagawa, Y., Yasuno, F, Hashikawa, K., Nishimura, T., Sugita, Y. & Takeda, M. (1999). Different neural substrates for Kanji and Kana writing: A PET study. Neuroreport: An International Journal for the Rapid Communication of Research in Neuroscience, 10(16), 3315–3319.
Torgesen, J. K., Alexander, A. W., Wagner, R. K., Rashotte, C. A., Voeller, K. K., & Conway, T. (2001). Intensive remedial instruction for children with severe reading disabilities: Immediate and long-term outcomes from two instructional approaches. J Learn Disabil, 34(1), 33–58, 78.
Turkeltaub, P. E., Flowers, D. L., Verbalis, A., Miranda, M., Gareau, L., & Eden, G. F. (2004). The neural basis of hyperlexic reading: An FMRI case study. Neuron, 41(1), 11–25.
Turkeltaub, P. E., Garaeu, L., Flowers, D. L., Zefirro, T. A., & Eden, G. F. (2003). Development of the neural mechanisms for reading. Nature Neuroscience 6(6), 767–773.
van der Mark, S., Bucher, K., Maurer, U., Schulz, E., Brem, S, Buckelmuller, J., Kronbichler, M., Loenneker, T., Klaver, P., Martin, E., & Brandeis, D. (2009). Children with dyslexia lack multiple specializations along the visual word-form (VWF) system. Neuroimage, 47(4), 1940–1949.
Vellutino, F. R., Fletcher, J. M., Snowling, M. J., & Scanlon, D. M. (2004). Specific reading disability (dyslexia): what have we learned in the past four decades? J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 45(1), 2–40.
Vellutino, F. R., Scanlon, D. M., & Sipay, E. R. (1997). Toward distinguishing between cognitive and experiential deficits as primary sources of difficulty in learning to read: The importance of early intervention in diagnosing specific reading disability. In B. Blackman (Ed.), Foundations of reading acquistion and dyslexia (347–379). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Vellutino, F. R., Smith, H., Steger, J. A., & Kaman, M. (1975). Reading disability: age differences and the perceptual-deficit hypothesis. Child Dev, 46(2), 487–493.
Vellutino, F. R., Smith, H., Steger, & Kandel, G. (1972). Reading disability: an investigation of the perceptual deficit hypothesis. Cortex, 8(1), 106–118.
Wang, M., Koda, K., & Perfetti, C. A. (2003). Alphabetic and nonalphabetic L1 effects in English word identification: A comparison of Korean and Chinese English L2 learners. Cognition, 87(2), 129–149.
Wang, M., Perfetti, C. A., & Liu, Y. (2005). Chinese-English biliteracy acquisition: Cross-language and writing system transfer. Cognition 97(1), 67–88.
Wong, P. C., Perrachione, T. K., & Parrish, T. B. (2007). Neural characteristics of successful and less successful speech and word learning in adults. Hum Brain Mapp, 28(10), 995–1006.
Zhou X, M.-W. W. (1999). “Phonology, orthography, and semantic activation in reading Chinese”. J Mem Lang, 41, 579–606.