Cover not available

In:Understanding L2 Proficiency: Theoretical and meta-analytic investigations
Edited by Eun Hee Jeon and Yo In'nami
[Bilingual Processing and Acquisition 13] 2022
► pp. 159–211

Get fulltext
PDF logo with download linkDownload Chapter PDF

Chapter 6
L2 writing and its external correlates

A meta-analysis

ORCiD logo with link | Gifu City Women’s College
ORCiD logo with link | Chuo University
ORCiD logo with link | Teikyo University of Science
Open Access logo
Available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives (CC BY-NC-ND) 4.0 license.

For any use beyond this license, please contact the publisher at rights@benjamins.nl.

Published online: 4 August 2022
DOI logo with link
https://doi.org/10.1075/bpa.13.06koj
Abstract
The present meta-analysis examined the overall average correlation between second/foreign language (L2) writing performance and each of 11 key predictor variables frequently investigated in the research domain, and compared the relative importance of those variables. A series of moderator analyses were also carried out to examine the effects of age, L2 proficiency, first language (L1) and L2 distance, learning context, and measurement characteristics for six high-evidence correlates (L2 grammar, L2 vocabulary, L2 reading, L2 speaking, L1 writing, and motivational constructs). By doing so, we examined various L2 proficiency models, writing models, and hypotheses, particularly the core-periphery model proposed by Hulstijn (2015). To this end, a total of 103 retrieved studies contributed 377 effect sizes based on 112,475 independent participants. The results showed that L2 reading and speaking achievement had strong average correlations with L2 writing performance, whereas L1 writing performance had a medium correlation with it. L2 linguistic knowledge (grammar, vocabulary, transcription, decoding) had more medium to strong effects on L2 writing performance than language-general cognitive skills and motivational constructs, which had only weak effects. The effects of metacognitive knowledge were trivial and insignificant. L2 proficiency, age, and certain measurement characteristics were found to be significant moderators for certain components.
Article outline
  • 1.Introduction
  • 2.Background to the meta-analysis
    • 2.1Review of high-evidence correlates
      • 2.1.1L2 grammar
      • 2.1.2L2 vocabulary
      • 2.1.3L2 reading
      • 2.1.4L2 speaking
      • 2.1.5L1 writing
      • 2.1.6Motivational constructs
    • 2.2Review of low-evidence correlates
      • 2.2.1L2 transcription
      • 2.2.2L2 decoding
      • 2.2.3Language aptitude
      • 2.2.4Working memory
      • 2.2.5Metacognitive knowledge
    • 2.3Review of moderator variables
  • 3.Research questions for the meta-analysis
  • 4.Method
    • 4.1Literature search and inclusion criteria
    • 4.2Acceptable measures of L2 writing performance and external correlates
    • 4.3Coding the primary studies
    • 4.4Research synthesis
  • 5.Results
  • 6.Discussion
    • 6.1High-evidence correlates
      • 6.1.1L2 grammar knowledge
      • 6.1.2L2 vocabulary knowledge
      • 6.1.3L2 reading
      • 6.1.4L2 speaking
      • 6.1.5L1 writing
      • 6.1.6Motivational constructs
    • 6.2Low-evidence correlates
      • 6.2.1L2 transcription
      • 6.2.2L2 decoding
      • 6.2.3Language aptitude
      • 6.2.4Working memory
      • 6.2.5Metacognitive knowledge
  • 7.Conclusion
  • References
  • Appendix
References (93)
References
Alderson, J. C. (1984). Reading in a foreign language: A reading problem or a language problem? In J. C. Alderson & A. H. Urquhart (Eds.), Reading in a foreign language (pp. 1–24). Longman.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bachman, L. F., & Palmer, A. S. (1996). Language testing in practice: Designing and developing useful language tests. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2007). Working memory, thought, and action. Oxford University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice Hall.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bereiter, C., & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written composition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Bulté, B., & Housen, A. (2014). Conceptualizing and measuring short-term changes in L2 writing complexity. Journal of Second Language Writing, 26 , 42–65. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. Applied Linguistics, 1 (1), 1–47. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Carroll, J. B. (1972). Fundamental considerations in testing for English language proficiency of foreign students. In H. B. Allen & R. N. Campbell (Eds.), Teaching English as a second language: A book of readings (pp. 313–320). McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(1981). Twenty-five years of research on foreign language aptitude. In K. C. Diller (Ed.), Individual differences and universals in language learning aptitude (pp. 119–154). Newbury House.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Carroll, J. B., & Sapon, S. M. (1959). The Modern Language Aptitude Test. Psychological Corporation.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Carson, J. E., & Kuehn, P. A. (1992). Evidence of transfer and loss in developing second language writers. Language Learning, 42 (2), 157–182. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Christensen, C. A. (2004). Relationship between orthographic-motor integration and computer use for the production of creative and well-structured text. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74 (4), 551–564. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cohen, A. D., & Brooks-Carson, A. (2001). Research on direct versus translated writing: Students’ strategies and their results. The Modern Language Journal, 85 (2), 169–188. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Csapó, B., & Nikolov, M. (2009). The cognitive contribution to the development of proficiency in a foreign language. Learning and Individual Differences, 19 (2), 209–218. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cumming, A. (1989). Writing expertise and second-language proficiency. Language learning, 39 (1), 81–135. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cummins, J., & Swain, M. (2016). Bilingualism in education: Aspects of theory, research and practice. Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
De Jong, N. H., Steinel, M. P., Florijn, A. F., Schoonen, R., & Hulstijn, J. H. (2012). Facets of speaking proficiency. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 34 (1), 5–34. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Dörnyei, Z. (2000). Motivation in action: Towards a process-oriented conceptualisation of student motivation. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 70 (4), 519–538. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2003). Attitudes, orientations and motivations in language learning: Advances in theory, research and applications. Language Learning, 53 (S1), 3–32. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Farsani, M. A., Beikmohammadi, M., & Mohebbi, A. (2014). Self-regulated learning, goal-oriented learning, and academic writing performance of undergraduate Iranian EFL learners. TESL-EJ, 18 (2), 1–19.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Fitzgerald, J., & Shanahan, T. (2000). Reading and writing relations and their development. Educational Psychologist, 35 (1), 39–50. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Flahive, D. E., & Snow, B. G. (1980). Measures of syntactic complexity in evaluating ESL compositions. In J. W. Oiler & K. Perkins (Eds.), Research and language testing (pp. 171–176). Newbury House.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Grabe, W., & Kaplan, R. B. (1996). Theory and practice of writing: An applied linguistic perspective. Longman.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Graham, S. (2006). Writing. In P. Alexander & P. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 457–477). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Harrison, G. L., Goegan, L. D., Jalbert, R., McManus, K., Sinclair, K., & Spurling, J. (2016). Predictors of spelling and writing skills in first- and second-language learners. Reading and Writing, 29 (1), 69–89. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hayes, J. R. (1996). A new framework for understanding cognition and affect in writing. In C. M. Levy & S. Ransdell (Eds.), The science of writing: Theories, methods, individual differences and applications (pp. 1–27). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2012). Modeling and remodeling writing. Written Communication, 29 (3), 369–388. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hayes, J. R., & Flower, L. S. (1980). Identifying the organization of writing processes. In L. W. Gregg & E. R. Steinberg (Eds.), Cognitive processes in writing (pp. 3–30). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hirose, K. (2003). Comparing L1 and L2 organizational patterns in the argumentative writing of Japanese EFL students. Journal of Second Language Writing, 12 (2), 181–209. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hirose, K., & Sasaki, M. (1994). Explanatory variables for Japanese students’ expository writing in English: An exploratory study. Journal of Second Language Writing, 3 (3), 203–229. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Hirvela, A., & Belcher, D. (2016). Reading/writing and speaking/writing connections: The advantages of multimodal pedagogy. In R. M. Manchón & P. K. Matsuda (Eds.), Handbook of second and foreign language writing (pp. 587–612). Walter de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jak, S. (2015). Meta-analytic structural equation modelling. Springer. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jeon, E.-H., & Yamashita, Y. (2014). L2 reading comprehension and its correlates: A meta-analysis. Language Learning, 64 (1), 160–212. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Jones, D. A., & Christensen, C. A. (1999). Relationship between automaticity in handwriting and students’ ability to generate written text. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91 (1), 1–6. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Juel, C. (1988). Learning to read and write: A longitudinal study of 54 children from first through fourth grades. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80 (4), 437–447. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kamimura, T. (1996). Composing in Japanese as a first language and English as a foreign language: A study of narrative writing. RELC journal, 27 (1), 47–69. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kellogg, R. T. (1996). A model of working memory in writing. In C. M. Levy & S. Ransdell (Eds.), The science of writing: Theories, methods, individual differences and applications (pp. 57–71). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Koda, K. (2005). Insights into second language reading: A cross-linguistic approach. Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Koda, K., & Yamashita, J. (2019). Reading to learn in a foreign language: An integrated approach to foreign language instruction and assessment. Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kormos, J. (2012). The role of individual differences in L2 writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 21 (4), 390–403. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Kyle, K., & Crossley, S. (2016). The relationship between lexical sophistication and independent and source-based writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 34 (1), 12–24. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Laufer, B. (1998). The development of passive and active vocabulary in a second language: same or different? Applied Linguistics, 19 (2), 255–271. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Lee, S. Y. (2005). Facilitating and inhibiting factors in English as a foreign language writing performance: A model testing with structural equation modeling. Language Learning, 55 (2), 335–374. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Leki, I., Cumming, A., & Silva, T. (2008). A synthesis of research on second language writing in English. Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Levelt, W. J. M. (1989). Speaking: Form intention to articulation. The MIT Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Li, S. (2016). The construct validity of language aptitude: A meta-analysis. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 38 (4), 801–842. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
MacArthur, C. A., & Graham, S. (2016). Writing research from a cognitive perspective. In C. A. MacArthur, S. Graham, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of writing research (pp. 24–40). The Guilford Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Manchón, R. M. (2001). Trends in the conceptualizations of second language composing strategies: A critical analysis. International Journal of English Studies, 1 (2), 47–70.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Manchón, R. M., & Roca de Larios, J. (2007). On the temporal nature of planning in L1 and L2 composing. Language Learning, 57 (4), 549–593. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Masgoret, A. M., & Gardner, R. C. (2003). Attitudes, motivation, and second language learning: A meta-analysis of studies conducted by Gardner and associates. Language Learning, 53 (1), 123–163. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Melby-Lervåg, M., & Lervåg, A. (2011). Cross-linguistic transfer of oral language, decoding, phonological awareness and reading comprehension: A meta-analysis of the correlational evidence. Journal of Research in Reading, 34 (1), 114–135. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Murphy, P. K., & Alexander, P. A. (2000). A motivated exploration of motivation terminology. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25 (1), 3–53. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nation, P. (2013). Learning vocabulary in another language (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Nicolas-Conesa, F., Roca de Larios, J. R., & Coyle, Y. (2014). Development of EFL students’ mental models of writing and their effects on performance. Journal of Second Language Writing, 24 , 1–19. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Norris, J. M., & Ortega, L. (2000). Effectiveness of L2 instruction: A research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis. Language Learning, 50 (3), 417–528. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Oh, E., Lee, C. M., & Moon, Y. I. (2015). The contributions of planning, L2 linguistic knowledge and individual differences to L2 writing. The Journal of Asia TEFL 12 (2), 45–85.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Olive, T. (2004). Working memory in writing: Empirical evidence from the dual-task technique. European Psychologist, 9 (1), 32–42. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2012). Working memory in writing. In V. W. Berninger (Ed.), Past, present, and future contributions of cognitive writing research to cognitive psychology (pp. 485–503). Psychology Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pennington, M. C., & So, S. (1993). Comparing writing process and product across two languages: A study of 6 Singaporean university student writers. Journal of Second Language Writing, 2 (1), 41–63. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Pimsleur, P. (1966). Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Plonsky, L., & Oswald, F. L. (2014). How big is “big”? Interpreting effect sizes in L2 research. Language Learning, 64 (4), 878–912. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Purpura, J. E. (2004). Assessing grammar. Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Read, J. (2000). Assessing vocabulary. Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Roca de Larios, J., Manchón, R., Murphy, L., & Marín, J. (2008). The foreign language writer’s strategic behaviour in the allocation of time to writing processes. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17 (1), 30–47. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Roca de Larios, J., Marín, J., & Murphy, L. (2001). A temporal analysis of formulation processes in L1 and L2 writing. Language Learning, 51 (3), 497–538. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Roca de Larios, J., Nicolas-Conesa, F., & Coyle, Y. (2016). Focus on writers: Processes and strategies. In R. M. Manchon & P. K. Matsuda (Eds.), Handbook of second and foreign language writing (pp. 267–286). Walter de Gruyter. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Rosenthal, R. (1979). The “file drawer problem” and tolerance for null results. Psychological Bulletin, 86 (3), 638–641. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sarkhoush, H. (2013). Relationship among Iranian EFL learners’ self-efficacy in writing, attitude towards writing, writing apprehension and writing performance. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 4 (5), 1126–1132. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sasaki, M. (2009). Changes in English as a foreign language students’ writing over 3.5 years: A sociocognitive account. In R. M. Manchón (Ed.), Writing in foreign language contexts: Learning, teaching, and research (pp. 49–76). Multilingual Matters. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sasaki, M., & Hirose, K. (1996). Explanatory variables for EFL students’ expository writing. Language learning, 46 (1), 137–168. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schmitt, N. (2010). Researching vocabulary: A vocabulary research manual. Palgrave MacMillan. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schoonen, R. (2019). Are reading and writing building on the same skills? The relationship between reading and writing in L1 and EFL. Reading and Writing, 32 (3), 511–535. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schoonen, R., Snellings, P., Stevenson, M., & Van Gelderen, A. (2009). Towards a blueprint of the foreign language writer: The linguistic and cognitive demands of foreign language writing. In R. M. Manchón (Ed.), Writing in foreign language contexts: Learning, teaching, and research (pp. 77–101). Multilingual Matters. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schoonen, R., Van Gelderen, A., De Glopper, K., Hulstijn, J., Simis, A., Snellings, P., & Stevenson, M. (2003). First language and second language writing: The role of linguistic knowledge, speed of processing, and metacognitive knowledge. Language Learning, 53 (1), 165–202. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Schoonen, R., Van Gelderen, A., Stoel, R. D., Hulstijn, J., & De Glopper, K. (2011). Modeling the development of L1 and EFL writing proficiency of secondary school students. Language learning, 61 (1), 31–79. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Service, E. (1992). Phonology, working memory, and foreign-language learning. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology Section A, 45 (1), 21–50. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Service, E., & Kohonen, V. (1995). Is the relation between phonological memory and foreign language learning accounted for by vocabulary acquisition? Applied Psycholinguistics, 16 (2), 155–172. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Shanahan, T. (2016). Relationships between reading and writing development. In C. A. MacArthur, S. Graham, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of writing research (2nd ed., pp. 194–207). The Guilford Press.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sparks, R. L., Humbach, N., Patton, J., & Ganschow, L. (2011). Subcomponents of second-language aptitude and second-language proficiency. The Modern Language Journal, 95 (2), 253–273. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Sparks, R. L., Patton, J., Ganschow, L., & Humbach, N. (2009). Long-term relationships among early first language skills, second language aptitude, second language affect, and later second language proficiency. Applied Psycholinguistics, 30 (4), 725–755. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
(2012). Do L1 reading achievement and L1 print exposure contribute to the prediction of L2 proficiency? Language Learning, 62 (2), 473–505. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Speciale, G., Ellis, N. C., & Bywater, T. (2004). Phonological sequence learning and short-term store capacity determine second language vocabulary acquisition. Applied Psycholinguistics, 25 (2), 293–321. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Stevenson, M., Schoonen, R., & De Glopper, K. (2006). Revising in two languages: A multi-dimensional comparison of online writing revisions in L1 and FL. Journal of Second Language Writing, 15 (3), 201–233. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Stoller, F. L. (2004). Content-based instruction: Perspectives on curriculum planning. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 24 , 261–283. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Ushioda, E., & Dörnyei, Z. (2012). Motivation. In S. M. Gass & A. Mackey (Eds.), The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 396–409). Routledge.Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Vanderberg, R., & Swanson, H. L. (2007). Which components of· working memory are important in the writing process? Reading and Writing, 20 (7), 721–752. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Viechtbauer, W. (2010). Conducting meta-analyses in R with the metafor package. Journal of Statistical Software, 36 (3), 1–48. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Weigle, S. C. (2002). Assessing Writing. Cambridge University Press. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Wesche, M., & Paribakht, T. S. (1996). Assessing L2 vocabulary knowledge: Depth versus breadth. Canadian Modern Language Review, 53 (1), 13–40. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Whalen, K., & Ménard, N. (1995). L1 and L2 writers’ strategic and linguistic knowledge: A model of multiple-level discourse processing. Language Learning, 45 (3), 381–418. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Zimmerman, B. J., & Risemberg, R. (1997). Becoming a self-regulated writer: A social cognitive perspective. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 22 (1), 73–101. Google Scholar logo with link to Google Scholar
Cited by (7)

Cited by seven other publications

Babayiğit, Selma & Danijela Trenkic
2025. Vocabulary knowledge is key to understanding and addressing disparities in higher education. British Journal of Educational Psychology DOI logo
Fonteyne, Margot, Maribel Montero Perez, Joke Daems & Lieve Macken
2025. Selecting Instruments for Investigating L2 Swedish Writing Data of L1 Dutch Learners Across Proficiencies. Nordand 20:1 ► pp. 1 ff. DOI logo
Naismith, Ben & Alan Juffs
2025. The impact of collocational proficiency features on expert ratings of L2 English learners’ writing. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 47:1 ► pp. 336 ff. DOI logo
Dudley, Amber, Emma Marsden & Giulia Bovolenta
2024. A Context-Aligned Two Thousand Test: Toward estimating high-frequency French vocabulary knowledge for beginner-to-low intermediate proficiency adolescent learners in England. Language Testing 41:4 ► pp. 759 ff. DOI logo
Finlayson, Natalie, Emma Marsden & Rachel Hawkes
2024. Creating and evaluating corpus-informed word lists for adolescent, beginner-to-low-intermediate learners of French, German, and Spanish. Language Teaching Research DOI logo
Venagli, Ilaria & Tanja Kupisch
2024. How does dyslexia impact second language acquisition?. In Multilingual Acquisition and Learning [Studies in Bilingualism, 67], ► pp. 90 ff. DOI logo
Mavrou, Irini & Javier Chao
2023. What Does Linguistic Distance Predict When It Comes to L2 Writing of Adult Immigrant Learners of Spanish?. Written Communication 40:3 ► pp. 943 ff. DOI logo

This list is based on CrossRef data as of 3 december 2025. Please note that it may not be complete. Sources presented here have been supplied by the respective publishers. Any errors therein should be reported to them.

Mobile Menu Logo with link to supplementary files background Layer 1 prag Twitter_Logo_Blue